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BI211 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Stimulus

A

A change in the internal or external environment that triggers a respons

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2
Q

Sensation

A
  • a conscious awareness of sensory information and the resulting NS activity
  • ex. Ouch! Pain! (after capsacin binds to the tongue)
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3
Q

perception

A
  • awareness of a sensation, a higher level of understanding
  • understanding the meaning, location and conswequences of a sensation.
  • Stimuli activate receptors, trigger AP, eventually the signal reaches the brain and is perceived.
  • ex. pain on tongue, kind of spicy, maybe i should stop eating these jalepenos, or drink some milk (After capsacin binds to tongue
  • Ex. I’m cold, should I put on a sweater? Should I go inside? etc
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4
Q

receptors

A

structures that detect stimuli, on a neuron or associated with a neuron. Receptors are transducers

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5
Q

transducers

A

change one form of energy (a stimulus) into electrical ATP

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6
Q

reception

A
  • stimulus reaches the receptor
  • ex. capsacin binds to the tongue
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7
Q

Sensory transduction

A
  • Receptor is stimulated
  • Receptod triggers an AP
  • Impulse sent to the brain for interpretation
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8
Q

Types of receptors

A
  • Mechanoreceptors
  • Thermoreceptors
  • Nociceptors
  • Chemoreceptors
  • Photoreceptors
  • Baroreceptors
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9
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

include propriorecpetors, detect changes in teh membrane

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10
Q

nociceptors

A

detect pain (both somatic and visceral

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11
Q

What does magnitude of sensory graded potentials influence?

A

the frequency of action potentials

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12
Q

How is intesity perceived by the brain?

A

by how many AP are fired

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13
Q

Adaptation

A
  • a decrease in receptor sensitivity despte constant strength of a stimulus
  • ex. sitting on a seat– touch receptors on butt adapt so that you don’t constantly feel it there
  • Degrees of adaptation can vary:
    • Rapid adaptation: sensory receptors in the skin, on, then off until a change
    • Slow adaptation: sensory receptors that need constant monitoring such as muscle tenseness
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14
Q

What info does the brain need to understand what is occuring?

A
  1. Stimulus type: heat, cold, sound, pressure, etc
  2. Stimulus intensity: determined by frequency of AP
  3. Stimulus location: determined by brain location of the ed of the afferent pathway, aka it is based on what portion of the brain is stimulated
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15
Q

sensory unit

A

a single sensory neuron with all its receptor endings OR a sensory neuron and its receptor cell

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16
Q

recpetive field

A

Typically a sesory neuron has many receptor endings, the entire area they encompass is called the receptive field

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17
Q

Small receptive field

A

precise and very sensitive, ex. the lips

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18
Q

large receptive field

A

hard to tell exactly where the touch occured, not very sensitive

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19
Q

Acuity

A

the degree of accurate perception.

ex. discerning touch in one location from another, or discerning two related images

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20
Q

Lateral inhibition

A
  • Ex. if 3 sensory neurons all receive stimuli, the one with the strongest stimulus wins
    *
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21
Q

Afferent sensory pathways

A
  • Get the signal to the brain.
  • Chains of 3+ neurons
  • Sensory neurons–> intereurons–>more interneurons
  • Chain is specific
  • The location is the brain is also specific
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22
Q

Factors that affect perception

A
  • Adaptation
  • Emotion, personality, stress, social background.
  • CNS has mechanisms to turn down sensityive reception by the PNS–thalamus can amplify, diminish or edit what you are perceiving
  • Lack receptors for some stimuli–radio waves, infrared light
  • Have receptors but no mechanism forconscious perception– blood vessel stretch receptors
  • Drugs– hallucinations
  • Mental illness– schizophrenia can produce untrue perceptions of sensory stimuli
  • Damaged neural pathways
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23
Q

Phantom limb

A

sensation associated with a body part that has been amputated. The intact portion of the sensory pathway continues to send signals to the CNS

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24
Q

Referred pain

A

pain impulses from viscera are perceived as originating from the skin. This often occurs with heart attack patients. Percieve arm pain, but actually it is something deeper

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25
Q

Reflexes

A

Neural circuits that operate without conscious control– involuntary. They usually work to maintain homeostasis. You can’t stop it, and can’t always perceive it

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26
Q

Monosynaptic reflexes

A
  • One synapse
  • Simple relfex where the afferent neurons synapse onto the effferent axon
  • No interneuron
  • There is a very minor delay between the stimulus and response
  • ex. knee jerk reaction
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27
Q

polysynaptic reflexes

A
  • Many synapses
  • involve a large numvber of synapses and interneurons
  • there is a longer delay between stimulus and response
  • ex. shifting weight to pull legg away from stimulus
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28
Q

Ipsilateral reflexes

A

same side reflexes

ex. pummling your arm away from a hot object

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29
Q

contralateral reflex

A

opposite side reflex

ex. stepping on something sharp an pulling one leg away while shifting weight to the other leg

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30
Q

A reflex arc that includes hand and brain will be:

A

Polysynaptic

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31
Q

Does an area with a large receptor field have a high, or low acuity?

A

Low touch acuity

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32
Q

Which reflexes are maintained even after spinal cord injury?

A

Erection, defecation, stretch/tendon reflexes, urination

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33
Q

Somatic senses

A

pain, temperature, touch, stretch and pressure

all over the body

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34
Q

special senses

A

gustation (taste), olfaction (smell), vision, equilibrium and hearing

limited to the head

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35
Q

Recepector classification: distribution

A
  • Where in the body
  • Somatic: receptors in skeletal muscle or skin
  • Visceral- guts
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36
Q

Receptor classifications: where the stimulus comes from

A
  • Extteroreceptors
  • Interorecptors
  • Proprioreceptors
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37
Q

Exteroreceptors

A

Detect change from the external environmentm touch thermal

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38
Q

Interoceptors

A

Detect stimuli in internal organs, like [O2] chemicals from cell damage

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39
Q

proprioceptors

A

detect changes in limb position, located in muscles, tendons and joints. Where our body is relative to the world.

40
Q

Proprioceptors

A

mechanoreceptors that detect the stretch of muscles and ligaments to determine body position

41
Q

Tactile sensation

A

touch, heat, cold, pressure, detected though skin. Different types of receptors specialize in types of touch.

42
Q

Pain reception

A

somatic and visceral nociceptors respond to tissue damage

43
Q

Tactile receptors

A
  • perceive touch
  • are mechanreceptors that react to touch, pressure and vibration
  • Have specialized structure for different functions
  • Have Small receptive fields
  • Pathways of neurons bring touch sensation to the brain
44
Q

Temperature

A
  • Is sensed by dendritic endings of unmylenated sensory neurons
  • Contain ion channels that open at specific temps
  • Some chemical stimulus can override this, like capsacin and menthol. These don’t actually change temperature, but it gives the same sensation
45
Q

Pain

A
  • Protect us from tissue damage
  • Stimuli- mechanical deformation of tissue, extremes in temp, chemicals
    • Acids and bases can directly trigger nociceptors
    • Chemicals like histamines, cytokines and prostaglandins are all released when cells are damaged
  • Neurons that have ligand dated channels for these stimuli are called nociceptors
46
Q

Nociceptors

A

Have ligand gated channels for pain stimuli (chmicals, deformation of tissue, extremes of temp)

Mostly unmylenated

Mostly use substance P or glutamate as NT

can be inhibited by other receptors, lateral inhibition and CNS inhibiiton

47
Q

photoreceptors

A
  • in the eyes, detect light, color and movement
  • Light is filtered, bent and absorbed by other parts of they eye before it reaches the photoreceptors
  • Information from the photoreceptors is sent to the visual region of the brain for interpretation.
48
Q

Sclera

A
  • tough outer portion of the eyeball
  • the anterior surface of the sclera is the clear cornea
49
Q

cornea

A

the clear anterior surface of the sclera

50
Q

Choroid

A

the dark middle portion of the eyeball

anterior choroid is iris, lens and ciliary muscle

most of the blood vessels are found here

51
Q

retina

A

reflective inner portion of the eyeball

formed as an extension of the brain

contains photoreceptors clustered in the macula lutea and fovea centralis

52
Q

macula lutea and fovea centralis

A

area where photoreceptors are clustered in the retina

the curved surfave of the cornea bends light onto these spots

macula lutea is a larger area, and fovea centralis is a small part within that area

is an area so the photoreceptors are not covered by blood vessels

53
Q

ciliary muscles

A

shape the lens to bend light waves

in the choroid- ventral part of eye

54
Q

accommodation

A

bend lens to change the path of light.

55
Q

sight acuity

A

bending light to focus it on the fovea centralis

56
Q

presbyopia

A

lens get tougher- happens when you get old

57
Q

nearsighted

A

eyeball is too long (oval) can’t bend light to the right place

58
Q

far sighted

A

eyeball is to short- can’t bend light to the righ place

59
Q

Müller cells

A
  • type of glial cells
  • make up 20% of the volume of the retina
  • work like fiber-optic cables
  • channel light to the location of photoreceptors
60
Q

Pigment layer behind retina

A

absorbs any light photons that are not caught by photoreceptors. This works to protect structures and adds to the clarity of vision

helps with acuity, like reading.

61
Q

Rods

A

extremely sensitive.

Good for dark, good for perceiving motion

photopigment=Rhodpsin + retinal

62
Q

Cones

A

only respond to bright light, responsible for color vision

photopigment=opsins +retinal

63
Q

pigments

A

are in photoreceptors, they absorb different wavelengths of light (those that are notabsrobed are reflected)

64
Q

retinal

A

derived from vit A

65
Q

opsins

A

differ based on different types of cones, each absorb a different spectrum

66
Q

photoreceptor depolarization

A

photreceptors are constantly depolarized, and always have their channels open

Stimulation closes these channels and polarizes the cell

67
Q

What type of receptors are nociceptors

A

Chemoreceptors

68
Q

Color vision

A

Retina has 3 types of cones:

Long wavelengths (red cones)

Medium wavelengths (green cones)

Short wavelengths (blue cones)

there is some overlap

Perception of shade is determined by relative outputs of the 3 types

69
Q

Color blindness

A

when one or more cone pigments are not made properly

Red-green colorblindness is most common (1:12 males, 1:200 females)

Genes for red and green are on X chromosome, blue is on chrom 7

70
Q

Volume (hearing)

A

as molecules radiate outward, the difference between the waves of compessed molecules, and the compression of molecules between them determines volume. This is why

71
Q

Pitch (hearing)

A

the frequency of vibration determines pitch

faster vibration=higher pitch

72
Q

Auricle

A

is the external ear

funnels sound in toward the midle ear

sound passes through a bony tube

73
Q

tympanic membrane

A

an epithelial sheet found inside the ear canal that vibrates when the sound wabes hit it

aka war drum

74
Q

Middle ear

A
  • is internal to the tympanic membrane
  • is an air filled space containing 3 bones
  • maintains a connection to the atmosphere by way of the eustacian tube–connects middle ear to throat
  • the 3 bones magnify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane and transmit them to the inner ear by pounding on the oval window
75
Q

eustacian tube

A

a connection between the middle ear and the throat

is what get clogged with changes to altitude etc.

76
Q

Inner ear

A
  • fluid filled
  • Sectioned into 3 regions
  1. Vestibule-detects tilt of head
  2. Semicircular canals
  3. cochlea-hearing
77
Q

Vestibule

A

in inner ear, detects the tilted position of the head. Especially due to acceleration or decelleration

78
Q

semicircular canals

A

in inner ear- detect the rotation of the head

79
Q

Cochlea

A

in inner ear– hearing

80
Q

Basilar membrane

A

suspended within the cochlea, bounces with the vibrations (that are passed from the 3bones to the oval window)

81
Q

Hair cells

A

in cochlea, are sandwiched between the basilar membrane and a stationart membrane located above it. As the basilar membrane bounces, the cilia hit the tectorial membrane, cilia bending depolarizes the hair cells.

82
Q

Hearing sensory reception

A

All 3 regions of the inner ear use the same sensory receptors for three different things.

  1. Hair cell
  2. Bend cilia in one direction=depolarization
  3. Bend cilia in other direction=repolarization
83
Q

Vestibulochlear nerce

A

carries action potentials in toward the brain

84
Q

IN terms of action potentials, what is volume (hearing)

A

The frequency of action potential=volume

85
Q

Sense of balance

A

Hair cells with their cilia

2 locations

  1. rotational equilibrium in the semicircular canals
  2. gravitational equilibrium in the vestibule
86
Q

Equilibrium and alcohol

A

alcohol changes the viscosity of the endolymph, leading to misperception of balance, vertigo and movement.

Frequent and persistent use of alcohol can make the inner ear vulnerable to permanent changes in endolymph viscosity– leading to long lasting vertigo

87
Q

Vertigo

A

dizziness and sense of rotation

-inflammation in brain or inner ear

unusual fluid movement/viscocity

88
Q

Motion sickness

A

innerear senses a movement, but the visual stimuli doesnt match

89
Q

Taste

A

aka gustation or chemoreception

90
Q

taste buds

A

structures on the tongue, mouth and throat that hose taste cells

They are found within papillae, ~100 taste cells/papillae

Contain taste cells, supporting cells and basal cells

Basal cells replace gustatory cells every 7-10 days

is determined by genetics

toleration of spicy foods=fewer taste buds

91
Q

The 5 different tastes

A

Salty, sweet, sour, bitter, umami

92
Q

Salty taste sensation

A

Salt on tongue dissociates, Na enters and depolarizes the receptor–>opens ion channels

93
Q

sour taste sensation

A

H+ in the acidic food blocks K+ channels. Loss of hyperpolarizing K+ allows the cells to come to threshold

94
Q

Sweet, bitter, umami taste sensation

A

all signal through G-coupled protein receptors

95
Q

Olfaction

A
  • uses chemoreceptors
  • 80% of flavor of food comes from smell
  • olefactory neurons are replaced by stem cells every 2 months
  • female sex hormones increase olfactory eurogenesis
96
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

in nasal cavity, is location of cell bodies and dendrites of olfactory receptor cells.

97
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

the acons of receptor cells extend through the base of the skill in into the olfactory bulb.

In the olfactory bulb, they synapse with neurons of the olfactory nerve

BI211 (11 decks)

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