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ASCI340 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What does axon myelination consist of?

A

Myelin “coat”

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2
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

Intermittent lipid coverings down the axon

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3
Q

What type of cells is the myelin sheath formed by?

A

Non-neuron support (Glial) cells

  • Schwann cells –> PNS
  • Oligodendrocytes –> CNS
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4
Q

What are Nodes of Ranvier?

A

Bare axon surface

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5
Q

Where are Nodes of Ranvier?

A

Between myelin sheaths
~ 1 mm apart

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6
Q

What does axon myelination = ?

A

Speed, speed, speed

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6
Q

What does axon myelination = ?

A

Speed, speed, speed

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7
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A
  • Action potential “skips” over myelinated areas of axon membrane
  • Increases action potential propagation speed
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8
Q

Synapse

A

Association between axon terminal and target cell

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9
Q

What are the 3 types of target cells?

A

Another neuron, muscle cell, secretory cell

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10
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

Space between synaptic knob and target cell

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11
Q

What is the synaptic knob?

A

Bell-shaped ending of axon

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12
Q

What does the synaptic knob contain?

A

Synaptic vesicles that hold packaged neurotransmitters

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13
Q

What does the AP open?

A

Ca 2+ channels

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14
Q

What does the action potential opening the Ca 2+ channels do?

A

Causes exocytosis of neurotransmitters

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15
Q

What happens when the nuerotransmitters are released?

A

They cross the cleft, bind to receptors on target

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16
Q

Steps once action potential is released

A
  1. Action potential reaches terminal
  2. Voltage-gated Ca 2+ channels open
  3. Calcium enters axon terminal
  4. Nuerotransmitter is released and diffuses into the cleft
  5. Nuerotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors
  6. Nuerotransmitters are remobrf from synaptic cleft
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17
Q

Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials (EPSPs)

A

Nuerotransmitter-receptor Ligands open gated channels

  • Mostly Na+ channels
  • Each brings target closer to “threshold” (-55 mV)
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18
Q

Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potentials (IPSPs)

A

Neurotransmitter-Receptor Ligans increase membrane permeability

  • K+
  • Cl-

Hyper polarizes membrane (Higher Resting Potential)
–> Further away from “threshold” (-55 mV)

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19
Q

Grand Post-Synapic Potential (GPSP)

A

The “sum” of concurrent EPSPs and IPSPs

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20
Q

Temporal Summation

A
  • From one upstream neuron
  • Rapid enough to “build up”
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21
Q

Spatial Summation

A

“Build up” from multiple upstream neurons

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22
Q

What do neuropeptides act on?

A

Act on the target cell
- near, but not within the synapse

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23
Q

What do neuropeptides do?

A

Alter (^ / v ) responsiveness to neurotransmitter

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24
Q

What is pre-synaptic inhibition / potentiation?

A
  • Regulation of the pre-synaptic nueron
  • By 3rd party neuron
  • Influences amount of neurotransmitter released
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25
Q

What is the central nervous system made of?

A

Brain and spinal cord

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26
Q

What does the brain do?

A
  • Regulation of body
  • Higher thought/memory
  • Lower “thought” (reactions, emotions, etc)
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27
Q

What does the spinal cord do?

A
  • Passageway between the brain and body
  • Coordination of some basic reflexes
  • Source of motor neurons
  • Destination of sensory nerves
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28
Q

What is the cerebrum?

A
  • Outermost neural tissue
  • Highest complexity
  • Highest thought
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29
Q

What is the cerebrum composed of?

A
  • Cerebral cortex
  • Hippocampus
  • Olfactory bulb
  • Basal nuclei
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30
Q

What is gray matter made of?

A
  • Cell bodies/dendrites
  • Vasculature
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31
Q

What is white matter made of?

A
  • Bundles of myelinated axon fibers
  • “Tracts” for neural pathways
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32
Q

Right hemisphere

A
  • Spatial relationships
  • Music, art
  • Creativity
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33
Q

Left Hemisphere

A
  • Language
  • Fine motor control
  • Logic
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34
Q

Where is the occipital lobe? What does it do?

A
  • Back of the cerebral cortex
  • Visual processing cortex
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35
Q

Where is the temporal lobe? What does it do?

A
  • Sides of the cerebral cortex
  • Hearing
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36
Q

Where are the parietal lobes? What does it do?

A
  • Top of the cerebral cortex
  • Touch, pressure. heat/cold, pain, body position
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37
Q

Where is the frontal cortex?

A

in the front of the cerebral cortex

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38
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

Voluntary motor control

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39
Q

Supplementary motor cortex

A

Stores motor programs
- “memorized” specific movements

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40
Q

Premotor cortex

A
  • Works in conjunction with posterior parietal cortex
  • Integration of motor programs with incoming sensory information
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41
Q

Limbic association cortex

A
  • Motivation
  • Emotion
  • Memory
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42
Q

Hippocampus

A

Coverts short-term memory to long term

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43
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

Smell

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44
Q

Basal nuclei

A
  • Inhibits unnecessary muscle tone
  • Helps maintain posture
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45
Q

Thalamus

A
  • “Relay station”
  • Coordinates sensory input from output
  • Filters out “useless noise”
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46
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Regulation of homeostasis

  • Body temp
  • Thirst / urine output
  • Food intake / appetite

Controls anterior pituitary hormone secretion
Coordinates autonomic NS
Emotional & behavioral patterns

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47
Q

Cerebellum

A

Orb shaped structure located in the back of the brain

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48
Q

Vistibulocerebellum

A
  • adjacent to brain stem
  • maintains balance
  • controls eye movement
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49
Q

Spinocerebellum

A
  • located at midline
  • coordinates w/ cc motor cortex
  • predicts body position
    ~ makes adjustment
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50
Q

Cerebrocerebellum

A
  • majority of cerebellum
  • “lower” voluntary action
  • some “procedural” memories
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51
Q

What is the brainstem made of (3 components) andwhat level of function does it have?

A

Medulla, pons, midbrain

  • lowest / least conmplex function
    ~ sleep/awake, alertness, basic touch/pressure
    ~ systems activity
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52
Q

Medulla

A
  • swallowing/salvation
  • vomiting (chemoreceptor trigger zone)
  • respiration
  • blood pressure
  • heart rate
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53
Q

Pons

A
  • Changes in respiratory rate, blood pressure
  • Analgesic system, sleep
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54
Q

Midbrain

A

motivation

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55
Q

What is the spinal cord continuous with?

A

the brainstem

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56
Q

What is the spinal cord made of?

A

White & gray matter
Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid

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57
Q

Lateral grat matter horns

A

cell bodies of autonomic (involuntary) efferent neurons

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58
Q

Ventral / anterior gray matter horns

A

Cell bodies of somatic (voluntary) efferent neurons

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59
Q

Dorsal/posterior gray matter horns

A
  • cell bodies of interneurons
  • receive signal from afferent / sensory neurons
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60
Q

Withdrawl (spinal reflex)

A

withdrawing body part from the pain source

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61
Q

Stretch (spinal reflex)

A

contracting SKM to counteract stretch

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62
Q

Crossed extensor (spinal reflex)

A

shifts load from injured limb to another

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63
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Nerves carrying info between CNS and body

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64
Q

Sensory neurons - afferent division

A
  • detect specific conditions in body tissues
  • alerts central nervous system
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65
Q

Motor neurons - efferent

A
  • Begins in CNS
  • Terminate on target tissues
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66
Q

Somatic division

A

voluntary

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67
Q

Autonomic division

A

involuntary

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68
Q

Order of spinal nerves (top –> bottom)

A

cervical > thoracic > lumbar > sacral > coccygeal

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69
Q

Receptor / dendrite

A
  • receptor near dendrite tips
  • receptor part of dendrite tips
  • affect axon hillock potential
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70
Q

Axon

A
  • connects to dendrites
  • carries signal to CNS (via action potential)
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71
Q

Cell body

A
  • axon “offshoot”
  • Skeps depolarization during action potential
  • groups located in same place
    ~ dorsal root ganglia
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72
Q

What do sensory neuron receptors respond to?

A

changes in SPECIFIC sources of energy

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73
Q

Photoreceptors

A

light

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74
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

stretch/bending

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75
Q

thermoreceptors

A

heat/cold

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76
Q

osmoreceptors

A

ECF molarity

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77
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

detect certain chemicals
- taste/smell , O2/CO2 in blood, nutrients in GI tract

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78
Q

Nociceptors

A

pain

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79
Q

What is intensity of sensation determined by?

A

action potential amount

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80
Q

Frequency code =

A

frequency of action potentials

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81
Q

Population code =

A

number of simultaneous action potentials

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82
Q

Receptor adaptation

A

Become less/non-responsive to stimuli
- often due to “over-stimulation”

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83
Q

Tonic receptors

A
  • NO adaptation / gradual adaptation
  • Example: muscle stretch receptors
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84
Q

Phasic receptors

A

Rapidly adapt

  • “off response”
  • cease firing when stimuli strength becomes constant
  • example: odor, touch, temperature
85
Q

Efferent division (PNS)

A

Autonomic nervous system
- involuntary

86
Q

Sympathetic

A
  • fight or flight
87
Q

Parasympathetic

A
  • rest and digest
  • feed and breed
88
Q

Somatic nervous system

A
  • Voluntary
  • Innervates skeletal muscle
89
Q

Sympathetic fibers

A

Short preganglionic neurons

  • originate in middle spinal cord
  • neurotransmitter = acetylcholine (Ach)
90
Q

Long postganglionic neurons

A

From ganglion to target

  • allow coverage in greater area
  • neurotransmitter = norepinephrine (NE)
91
Q

Sympathetic tone

A

^ HR

constricts blood vessels to GI tract and skin

dilates blood vessels to heart & skeletal muscle

dilates lung bronchioles / stops mucus

slows activity of gall bladder, bladder, and GI tract

^ sweat & saliva

^ adrenaline/NE, v digestive hormones

Increased brain alertness

92
Q

sympathetic immediate needs

A

Life or death
Fight or flight
Short term, high-input task

93
Q

Parasympathetic tone

A

Slower HR

No effects on blood vessels

Constricts bronchioles/increases mucous production in lungs

Increases activity of GI tract and digestive organs

Gallbladder and bladder emptying

Stimulation/potentiation of many digestive enzymes and hormones

Readjusts pupil “near” vision

94
Q

Longer-term parasympathetic needs

A

Food digestion/ nutrient level
Fertility/ reproduction
Recuperation
“Resetting” from major sympathetic event

95
Q

Properties of muscle

A

Excitability
Contractility
Stretchability
Elasticity

96
Q

Excitability

A

Change in function in response to stimulation

97
Q

Contractility

A

Intentionally shorten length

98
Q

Stretchability

A

can be lengthened w/out damage

99
Q

Elasticity

A

Recoil from stretch to “resting” length

100
Q

Skeletal muscle hyperplasia

A

Tissue growth via new cell formation

SKM hyperplasia is completed early

  • before birth for most mammals
  • early neonatal for some litter bearers
101
Q

Skeletal muscle hypertrophy

A

Tissue growth via existing cell growth
Hypertrophy is postnatal mechanism for SKM growth

102
Q

What do hyperplasia and hypertrophy both require?

103
Q

What are myoblasts?

A

Skeletal muscle stem cells

104
Q

What 2 functions must myoblasts perform?

A
  1. Differentiate into specific cell type(s)
  2. Self-renew
105
Q

Pre-natal hyperplasia

A
  1. myoblasts proliferate
    2a. Most myoblasts differentiate into myocytes
    2b. Some are “moth-balled” into satellite cells
  2. Differentiated myocytes fuse to form myotubes
  3. Myotubes mature to form functional muscle fibers
106
Q

Post-natal hypertrophy

A
  1. Quiescent satellite cells are activated into myoblasts
  2. Myoblasts proliferate
    3a. Most myoblasts differentiate into myocytes
  3. Differentiated myocytes fuse w/ existing fibers
107
Q

Myofibril

A

Make up majority of the fiber

Functional unit of myofibers

Contain dark and light straining bands

108
Q

Sarcomere

A

Repetitive contractile unit of myofibril

Z-line to z-line

109
Q

Thick filaments

A

Myosin polymer chains

  • run length of A-band
  • H-zone = strictly thick filament
  • Anchored by m-line
110
Q

Thin filaments

A

Actin polymer chains

  • make up I band (hang over into A-band a little bit)
  • Anchored by stabilizing proteins at the z-line
111
Q

What binds to thin filament?

A

myosin head

112
Q

myosin neck purpose

113
Q

Myosin tail

A

filament core

114
Q

Titin

A

anchor protein

115
Q

Actin

A

myosin attachment site

116
Q

Tropomyosin

A

covers/exposes actin binding site

117
Q

actinin

A

anchor protein

118
Q

Sliding filament theory

A

Acting & myosin interdigitate at sarcomeres

  • Myosin head (thick fil.) binds actin (thin fil.)
  • Myosin undergoes conformational change
    • Physically fulls think fil. toward center of thick ful.
    • Power stroke
      • Ca mediated
119
Q

How do sarcomeres shorten?

A

Simultaneously (decreased overall fiber length)

120
Q

Sliding filament theory steps

A
  1. Binding of myosin to actin
  2. Power stroke
  3. Rigor (myosin in low-energy form
  4. Unbinding of myosin and actin
  5. Cocking of the myosin head
121
Q

What is muscle contraction facilitated by?

A

Calcium

Upstream neuron → action potential

122
Q

How does calcium get into the muscle?

A

Travels down the t tubule

123
Q

Where is the AP carried to?

A

The sarcoplasmic reticulum

→ major Ca dumping from blind pouches

123
Q

Where is the AP carried to?

A

The sarcoplasmic reticulum

→ major Ca dumping from blind pouches

124
Q

Skeletal muscle contraction mechanism

A
  1. Ca influx → outside cell & SR
  2. Ca binds to troponin
  • Conformational change moves tropomyosin
  • Uncovers actin’s myosin binding site.
  1. Myosin binds to actin
  • ADP+Po keeps myosin head in “cocked” position
  • Binding to actin: pi dissassociates
    • Power stroke ensues (myosin neck hinges)
  1. Myosin and actin disengage
  • Myosin binds another ATP, causing disengagement
  • ATP → ADP+Pi recocked myosin head
    • Ready to repeat
125
Q

What keeps the thin filaments from sliding back once myosin disengages?

A

Staggered action

126
Q

Relaxation

A
  1. Calcium re-sequestered → Ca-ATPase pump: pumps back into SR out of cell
  2. Troponin reverts to original conformation
  3. Myosin remains in cocked position (no binding site0
127
Q

Glycolysis

A

2 ATP / glucose

Short term energy needs

No oxygen needed (anaerobic)

128
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

36 ATP per glucose

Long term-energy needs

Requires oxygen (aerobic)

  • stores O2 in muscle cell
  • Increases O2 extraction from blood
129
Q

Energy sources

A
  1. ATP - very little “extra”
  2. Creatine phosphate
  • “Holds” PO4 for ADP
  • Phosphocreatine + ADP = ATP
  • No oxygen needed
130
Q

Fatigue

A

Acute Muscle fatigue

  • ATP and/or CP depletion
131
Q

Neuromuscular fatigue (chronic)

A

Lag in Ach production/ release

132
Q

Type I fibers

A

red, slow oxidative

  • slower, less powerful contraction
  • Maintained longer
  • High oxidative phosphorylation
133
Q

Type IIa fibers

A

red, fast oxidative-glycolytic

  • Medium-powered contraction
  • Intermediate oxid. phos. vs. anaerobic glycolysis
134
Q

Type IIx fibers

A

White, fast glycolytic

  • Fast, powerful contraction
    • Easy to fatigue
      • High anaerobic glycolysis
135
Q

What are cardiac muscle cells?

A

Cardiomyocytes

136
Q

How do cardiac muscle cells compare to SKM?

A

Smaller & shorter than myocytes

Mono or binucliated

137
Q

How to t tubules in cardiac muscle compare to SKM?

A

Shorter, broader

138
Q

Intercalated discs

A

(cardiac muscle)

Specialized cellular junctions

139
Q

Cardiac muscle - involuntary contraction

A

Autorhythmic pacemaker cells

Spread through gap junctions

140
Q

Smooth muscle

A

single cells

  • more thick filaments, myosin heads than SKM
  • More myosin binding sites on actin
  • No troponin
  • Intermediate filaments → connect thin/thick networks, adds elasticity
141
Q

Smooth muscle contraction steps

A
  1. Ca enters the cell
  2. Ca activates calmodulim
  3. Calmodulin activates myosin light chain kinase
  4. MyLHK phosphorylates MyLCs
  5. Phospho-MyLCs allow myosin to uncurl
  6. Uncurled myosin binds to actin
142
Q

Endocrine system

A

Hormones → chemical messengers transported in circulation

143
Q

Endocrine glands

A
  • produce and secrete hormones
  • Responsive to stimulus and/or inhibition
144
Q

Hormone receptors

A
  • Expressed by target cells only
    • Allow tissue-specific responses to hormones
145
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Amine hormones

  • Amino derived
  • Adrenaline, thyroid hormone
146
Q

Peptide hormones

A

Short peptide chains

Oxytocin

147
Q

Protein hormones

A

Large globular proteins

Insulin, growth hormone

148
Q

Lipophilic

A

Steroid hormones

  • cholesterol-derived
  • Testosterone, estrogen, cortisol

Eicosanoid hormones

  • Fatty acid-derived
  • Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, lipoxins, leukotrienes
149
Q

Hormone signaling

A

Circulate in blood

  • Lipophilic hormones → transported by carrier proteins
  • Hydrophilic hormones → dissolved in plasma (or carrier protein)
150
Q

Cellular Signaling

A

Hydrophilic → membrane receptors / 2nd messenger systems

Lipophilic hormones → nuclear receptors/hormone response elements (HREs) on DNA , membrane receptors also

151
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Brain center for homeostasis

  • Makes hormones that regulate other hormones
  • Makes hormones secreted by posterior pituitary
    • oxytocin - uterine contracts, maternal behavior
    • Vasopressin (ADH) - water balance
151
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Brain center for homeostasis

  • Makes hormones that regulate other hormones
  • Makes hormones secreted by posterior pituitary
    • oxytocin - uterine contracts, maternal behavior
    • Vasopressin (ADH) - water balance
152
Q

Anterior pituitary (epithelial)

A

“tropic hormones”

  • Somatotrope - GH
  • Thyrotrope - TSH
  • Corticotrope - ACTH
  • Gonadotrope - FSH / LH
  • Lactotrope - prolactin
153
Q

Target glands

A

Produce hormones with specific actions

  • regulation of activities requiring DURATION rather than SPEED
  • Associated with a single (or few) specific activities or functions
154
Q

Examples of target glands

A

Thyroid/ parathyroid glands

Adrenal glands

Gonads (testes/ ovary)

Mammary glands

Liver, muscle, fat

155
Q

Where is the thyroid located?

A

Around the trachea, below larynx

156
Q

What is thyroid made of?

A

Follicles - clusters of secretory epith. cells

157
Q

What does the thyroid use?

A

accounts for 99% of iodine usage

158
Q

What is the thyroid stimulated by?

A

TSH from ant. pit.

159
Q

What is thyroid product?

A

T3 and T4 (thyroxine)

160
Q

What does the thyroid control?

A

Biol. effect: basal metabolism, body heat

161
Q

Where is the adrenal gland?

A

Marble sized glands (2) sitting atop of each kidney

162
Q

Adrenal gland medulla

A

Modified nerve endings

  • secretes norepinephrine & epinephrin (adrenaline) into blood
  • Acute stress responses, fight or flight
163
Q

What is the adrenal cortex stimulated by?

A

ACTH from anterior pituitary

164
Q

What are the adrenal cortex products?

A
  1. Cortisol
  2. Aldosterone
165
Q

Adrenal gland biol. effect

A
  1. changes metabolism in response to stress “anti-stress / anti-inflammation”
  2. regulates mineral balance
166
Q

What are the 2 types of gonads?

A

Ovaries in female, testes in males

167
Q

What do gonads produce?

A

Haploid germ cells for reproduction

168
Q

What are gonads stimulated by?

A

Gonadotropins from ant. pit.

  • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • Luteinizing hormone (LH)
169
Q

Gonads products

A

Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone

170
Q

Gonads biol. effect

A

Spermatogenesis, folliculogenesis, uterine quiescence, secondary sex (gender) characteristics

171
Q

Liver, muscle, fat

A

Not traditional endocrine glands, but secrete hormones

172
Q

What are muscle, liver, fat stimulated by?

A

Growth hormone

Other growth promoters/ inhibitors

173
Q

Liver product

A

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)

174
Q

Muscle product

A

IGFs, myostatin, etc

175
Q

Fat product

176
Q

Liver, muscle, fat biol. effect

A

IGFs promote tissue growth, cell proliferation

Myostatin inhibits growth

Leptin inhibits hunger

177
Q

Pineal gland

A

Melatonin → regulates circadian rhythm

178
Q

Thyroid

A

Calcitonin → stimulates production of bone

179
Q

Parathyroid

A

Parathyroid hormone

→ stimulates breakdown of bone when blood Ca is low

→ stimulates activation of vitamin D by kidney

180
Q

Liver

A

Angiotensin

→ stimulates vasoconstriction

→ stimulates release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex

181
Q

Duodenum

A

Secretin & cholecystokinin

Stimulates

  • biocarb & bile from liver
  • Digestive enzymes from pancreas
  • Gastric emptying
182
Q

Stomach

A

Ghrelin, neuropeptide Y (NPY)

→ stimulate hunger

183
Q

Kidney

A

Renin → activates angiotensin I

Erythropoietin → stimulates the production of RBCs

Somatostatin → Inhibits release of insulin, digestive enzymes from pancreas

184
Q

Pancreas

A

Insulin → uptake & metabolism of glucose, especially by muscle + uptake & storage of FFA by fat cells

Glucagon → inhibition of glucose uptake + stimulates glucogenesis by liver

185
Q

Where are non-coding RNA’s produced

A

via transcritption

186
Q

What is special about non-coding RNAs

A

Don’t code for proteins … but affect those that do

187
Q

What do non-coding RNAs regulate?

A

mRNA lifespan and mRNA translation rates

188
Q

RNA slicing steps

A
  1. Base sequence creates double strand with hairpin loop
  2. Enzymatic processing
  3. RISC binds mRNA w/ compl. sequence
  4. Disables target mRNA
  • Destroys it via cleavage
  • Prevents ribosomal attachment
189
Q

How much of mRNA’s are regulated by microRNA’s?

190
Q

What is major structure in testes?

A

Seminiferous tubules

191
Q

What happens in the testes?

A
  • Site of spermatogenesis
192
Q

What are Sertoli cells?

A

Tight-junctioned cells

  • harbor developing sperm
193
Q

Testes interstitial tissue

A
  • Surround tubules
  • Contain Leydig cells → produce testosterone
194
Q

Epididymis

A

Common collection area for tubules

195
Q

Spermatocytogenesis

A

Mitotic cellular reproduction

  • multiple rounds
  • Few spermatogonia become many
  • Stop after G2 (2 x 2n)
196
Q

Meiosis

A

One (2 x 2n) → Four (1 x 1n) spermatocytes

197
Q

Meiosis 1

A

Crossing over occurs btwn chromosome pairs

1 cell w/ 2 pairs → 2 cells w/ 1 chromosome

4 immature spermatids

198
Q

Spermiogenesis

A

Morphological transformation (differentiation)

Immature spermatid → mature spermatozoa

199
Q

Ovary Medulla

A

Inner

Dense connective tissue

→ blood supply, nerves, lymphatic

200
Q

Ovary cortex

A

Outer

Follicle (cell aggregate)

  • 1 oocyte (femal gamete)
201
Q

Granulosa cells

A

Produce estrogen

Interact w/ oocyte

202
Q

Theca cells

A

Support granulosa

203
Q

Stroma

A

Soft connective tissue

Supports follicles

204
Q

Follicular phase

A

Primordial > primary > secondary > early antral > large antral

205
Q

Ovulation

A

release of a mature egg from the female ovary

206
Q

Luteal phase

A

luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone levels decrease. The ruptured follicle closes after releasing the egg and forms a corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. During most of this phase, the estrogen level is high.

207
Q

Oogenesis steps

A

Meiosis 1

Meiosis 2

208
Q

Meiosis I

A

Begins prenatally

  • crossing over

Arrested before splitting

Resumes after puberty

  • 2 x 2n nucleus → 2 x 1n nucleus + 2 x 1n polar body
209
Q

Meiosis 2

A

Just after ovulation

  • 2 x 1n nucleus → 1 x 1n nucleus + 1 x 1n polar body

ASCI340 (13 decks)

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