Exam 1 Test Flashcards
What are the 4 anatomical sciences?
- Gross Anatomy - Macro
- Comparative Anatomy - Animal Model
- Histology- Micro
- Developmental Biology - Embryology
What are the 4 basic tissue types?
- Epithelial
- Muscle - Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
- Nerve
- Connective Tissue - Bone, Tendons, Red & White Blood Cells
What are the 3 characteristics of living organisms?
- Structurally Complex - Microscope
- Extract, Convert, & Use Energy
- Ability to replicate
What is the Genetic Central Dogma?
DNA (replication) DNA (transcription) RNA (Translation) Amino Acids –> Protein
What are the 4 concepts of the disease process?
- Etiology - The Cause
- Pathogenesis - The Beginning of the Disease
- Morphological Changes - Cellular or Physical Tissue Changes
- Functional Changes - No longer works
What are the 6 macro molecules of human life?
- Carbohydrates (primary fuel source)
- Lipids (Fats)
- Proteins (3rd fuel source, make up all other structures)
- Minerals (cofactors, electrolytes - electricity K+)
- Vitamins (cofactors, fat soluble, water soluble, vital amines)
- Water (facilitate all biochemical reactions)
What are the 11 different physiological systems?
- Skeleton
- Cardiovascular
- Respiratory
- Digestion
- Urinary
- Brain & Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Skeletal Muscle
- Integumentary
- Immune System
- Reproduction
- Endocrine
What is the Cell Doctrine Theory?
- 1838 Schleiden & Schwann
-Cell is Basic Unit of Life
-Cell –> Tissues –> Organs –> System –> Organism
-All cells arise from pre-existing cells (Cell Replication)
-All 11 physiological systems are designed to facilitate the cells needs - 1872 Claude Bernard
-The interior of the cell is fixed and stable - 1929 Walter Cannon
-Coined Team Homeostasis (02, pH, Temp, Etc…)
What is Homeostasis?
Internal and external environment of the cell must be maintained in a stable unchanging, constant condition.
What are the elements that make up all biological systems?
- Hydrogen (H)
- Oxygen (O)
- Nitrogen (N)
- Sulfur (S)
- Carbon (C)
- Phosphate Ion (PO43-)
- Sodium (Na+)
- Potassium (K+)
- Calcium (Ca2+)
- Chloride (Cl-)
What are Hydrogens bonding characteristics?
-Missing 1 electron
-Can make 1 single bond
-In building form (wants to share)
What are Oxygens bonding characteristics?
-Missing 2 electrons
-Can make 2 single bonds
-Involved in Cellular Aerobic Respiration
What are Sulfurs bonding characteristics?
-Missing 2 electrons
-Can make 2 bonds
-Disulfide Bond (bind or connect proteins together to build structures)
What are Nitrogen’s bonding characteristics?
-Missing 3 electrons
-Can make 3 bonds
-Cyclic Rings (makes ring structures carefully – DNA, RNA, Vitamins)
What are Carbons bonding characteristics?
-Missing 4 electrons
-Can make 4 bonds
-Best building material (backbone to living structures)
What are Phosphate Ions bonding characteristics?
Stored energy in high energy bonds (Anhydride Bond)
What are Sodium’s bonding characteristics?
- Na+ = Water = Pressure
- Hypernatremia = Hypervolemia = Hypertension
- Hyponatremia = Hypovolemia = Hypotension
What are Potassium’s bonding characteristics?
- K+ = Electricity
- Hyperkalemia = Increased Electrical Activity
- Hypokalemia = Decreased Electrical Activity
What are Calcium’s bonding characteristics?
- Involved in every muscle contraction
- Involved in every nerve conduction
- Involved in most intracellular communication
- Raw material to make hydroxyapatite (Bone)
#’s 1-3= Metabolic Activity
What is Chlorides bonding characteristics?
Helps as pH buffer by swapping with HCO3-
(Law of Equivalent Exchange)
What is the 1st component of physiological homeostatic systems?
Parameter: The item that is homeostatically regulated
-Normal range is healthy/normal
–Different based on gender, age, and condition
What is the 2nd component of physiological homeostatic systems?
Sensing Structures: The physical structures that monitor, assess, & measure the parameters.
-Cell populations (small)
-Glands (medium)
-Organs (large)
What is the 3rd component of physiological homeostatic systems?
Signals: The unique communication between the sensing structures and the structures responsible for returning/correcting the parameters back to normal.
1. Chemical : Hormone (Slow Communication)
2. Electrical : Nerve (Instant Communication)
What is the 4th component of physiological homeostatic systems?
Corrections: Positive & Negative Feedback Systems
-Includes physical structures and their pathways that correct or return the parameter back to normal and then shuts off.
What is a POSITIVE Feedback System?
Characterized by TEMPORARY amplification of the signal and its effects before returning the parameters back to normal and then shuts off.
-Fetal Development
-Lactation
What is a NEGATIVE Feedback System?
Characterized by NO amplification of the signal and it’s effects before returning the parameter back to normal and shutting off.
- Ca2+ Homeostasis (Calcium)
- Glucose Homeostasis
- Water Homeostasis
What is the 5th component of physiological homeostatic systems?
Consequences: Non-regulation of homeostasis systems leads to disease states
- Hypo Conditions
- Hyper Conditions
(signs & signals)
What are Waters unique characteristics?
- 3 States
- Lubricant
- Universal Solvent
- Large Temperature Range
- Absorbs Heat
- Involved in Principle of Osmosis
What is pH?
The quantity (product) of H+ and HCO3- dissolved in the water portion of plasma.
What are the uses of Carbohydrates?
-97% converted into ATP (Primary Fuel Source)
-3% Other (signaling molecule)
What are Carbohydrates specific characteristics?
- Polysaccharides: Many or large sugars
- Disaccharides: 2 sugars stuck together
- Lactose: Glucose molecule attached to galactose molecule
- Sucrose: Glucose molecule attached to fructose molecule
- Maltose: Glucose molecule attached to glucose molecule - Monosaccharides
- Glucose
- Galactose
- Fructose
What are the uses of Lipids?
- Triglyceride’s (Dietary Fuel Form)
- Adipocyte (triglyceride fuel cell)
- Adipose Tissue (collection of adipocytes) - Phospholipids: Make membrane structures
- Sphingolipids: Make neural myelin sheath covering or insulation
- Lipid Hormone: Universal Messenger
What are Triglycerides characteristics?
- ACYL Backbone or HEAD Group
- Used as a transport for the fatty acid tails and is not converted into ATP
- Head Group is Hydrophobic or Neutral - Add 1st Fatty Acid Tail
- Monoglyceride: Converted into ATP - Add 2nd Fatty Acid Tail
- Diglyceride: Converted into ATP - Add 3rd Fatty Acid Tail
- Triglyceride: Converted into ATP
- Triglycerides are named by the number of CARBONS in the Fatty Acid Tails
What are Saturated fatty acid tails?
-Have no double bonds between the fatty acid tail carbons
- Human Sources: Animal Fats
- 10% Max ——— 3% Ideal
What are Unsaturated fatty acids?
10%
-Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
— Have only 1 double bond between fatty acid tail carbons
What are Phospholipids characteristics?
- Make membrane structures known as phospholipid bilayers
- Simple conversion from a triglyceride
- Cut off 1 fatty acid tail
- Add PO43- to HEAD Group
- Head is hydrophilic & tails are hydrophobic: creating Amphiphatic Molecule
What are Sphingolipids characteristics?
- Make neutral myelin sheath covering insulation
- Simple conversion of a triglyceride
- Cut off 1 fatty acid tail
- Add sphingosine to HEAD Group
What are Lipid Hormones characteristics?
- Universal Messenger
- Complicated Chemistry
What is an individual unit of Protein called?
Amino Acid
There are 20 individual Amino Acids, explain them.
10 Essential Amino Acids: Must be taken in through diet (exogenously)
10 Non-Essential Amino Acids: Can be made internally (Endogenously)
What are the R-Groups of Amino Acids?
- R+ : Positive Charge
- R- : Negative Charge
- R : Neutral
- Sizes : Small, Medium, Large
What is Proteins Primary Structure?
- 1st Layer
- The sequence or arrangement of Amino Acids
- influenced by genetics
What is Proteins Secondary Structure?
- 2nd layer
- The reoccurring arrangement in space (repeating patterns)
1. Alpha Helix and Beta Pleated Sheet
-Helix means to twist (spring)
2. 7 pass transmembrane protein structure that is most common in all cells.
What is Proteins Tertiary Structure?
- 3rd Layer
- 3-D Shape, Native Conformation, Biologically Active, Folded Complete Protein (environmental, temperature, pH)
- Fully functional complete protein
What is Proteins Quaternary Structure?
- 4th layer
- Connects or binds more than one tertiary protein together to build larger structures
What are the 4 characteristics of Enzymes?
- All enzymes have a temperature optimum
- All enzymes have a pH optimum (7.35-7.45)
- All enzymes have a rate at which they speed up biochemical reactions [10(12) - 10(14)]
- All enzymes work on the principle of specificity; lock and key model
What is the 1st type of Enzymatic Binding Site Inhibitors?
Competitive Enzymatic Inhibitors
- These chemicals compete equally with the normal substrate for the enzymatic binding site and when bound they prevent, stop, or inhibit the enzymatic reaction
What is the 2nd type of Enzymatic Binding Site Inhibitors?
Non-Competitive Enzymatic Inhibitors
- These chemicals bind more preferentially to the enzymatic binding site than the normal substrate and when bound they stop, prevent, or inhibit the enzymatic reactions
What is the 3rd type of Enzymatic Binding Site Inhibitors?
Suicide Enzymatic Inhibitors
- Chemicals that bind permanently to the enzymatic binding site preventing the normal substrate from binding which stops the enzymatic reactions.
What is the use of enzymes?
They speed up biochemical reactions
What are the 2 chemical categories of nucleic acids?
1.Purines : Double Ringed Nucleotides
- Adenine : A
- Guanine : G
2. Pyrimidine : Single Ringed Nucleotides
- Thymine : T
- Cytosine : C
- Uracil : U
What is the 1st major structure of nucleic acids?
DNA
1. 4 Bases: Amino Acids
- Adenine : A
- Guanine : G
- Cytosine : C
- Thymine : T
2. Add 5 sided Ribose sugar with 1 oxygen : Deoxyribose
3. Add PO43-
What is the 2nd major structure of nucleic acids?
RNA
1. 4 Bases : Amino Acids
- Adenine : A
- Guanine : G
- Cytosine : C
- Uracil : U
2. Add 5 sided Ribose sugar with 2 oxygen : Ribose
3. Add PO43-
What are the Base Pair Rules or Watson and Crick Rules to DNA and RNA?
- DNA
- A = T ( 2 bonds )
- G = C ( 3 bonds ) - RNA
- A = U ( 2 bonds )
- G = C ( 3 bonds )
— Purines = Pyrimidines :
- A & G = T, C, U
What is the Triplet Code?
- Each 3 Nucleotide base pair sequence translates for 1 single amino acid (3 letter words only)
- More than one 3 Nucleotide base pair sequence translates for the same amino acid
What are Chargaff’s Rules?
- Purines = Pyrimidines
- The DNA nucleotides base pair sequence is different between different species
- The DNA nucleotides base pair sequence taken from any source of the same organism is identical and contains the entire genome
- The DNA nucleotides base pair sequence does not change with respect to age, nutrition, or environment
What is an example of a Positive Feedback System?
Fetal Development
What is an example of a negative feedback system?
Hypoglycemia & Hyperglycemia
What is the “lock and key” model?
- The key (substrate) must be in the correct size, shape, and charge for the lock (enzymatic binding site) to cause the enzymatic reactions
How many Amino Acids do Humans have?
20
What are Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids?
-10%
-Have more than 1 double bond between fatty acid tail carbons
-source: plant fats
Competitive Enzymatic Inhibitors are…..?
DOSE DEPENDENT
- the amount of enzymatic inhibition is controlled by the dose or amount of the enzymatic inhibitor.
