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Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals > Exam 1 Terms > Flashcards

Exam 1 Terms Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

Study of the internal and external structures of animals the physical relations between body parts

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2
Q

Physiology

A

Study of “how” living organisms perform their vital functions

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3
Q

Mechanism

A

The process by which a function is accomplished in an organism.
- step by step list or diagram of “how”

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4
Q

Domestic animal

A

Animals that humans have domesticated for their use as a source of food and raw materials, labor, and companionship

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5
Q

Mammal

A

Warm-blooded (homeothermic) higher vertebrates that nourish their young with milk secreted by mammary glands, and have skin usually covered with hair.
- most domestic animals are mammals

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6
Q

Herbivore

A

Animals that eat plants

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7
Q

Ruminant herbivore

A

Plant eaters with multi-chambered stomachs

- Cattle, sheep goats

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8
Q

Bovine

A

Cattle

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9
Q

Ovine

A

Sheep

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10
Q

Caprine

A

Goats

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11
Q

Non-ruminant herbivore

A

Plant eaters with single-chambered stomachs

- horses

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12
Q

Equine

A

Horses

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13
Q

Carnivore

A

Animals that eat other animals (meat)

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14
Q

Feline

A

Cat

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15
Q

Canine

A

Dog

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16
Q

Omnivore

A

Animals that eat both plants and meat

  • pigs
  • humans
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17
Q

Porcine

A

Swine, pigs

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18
Q

Histology

A

Microscopic study of tissues

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19
Q

Muscle tissue

A

Tissue that is specialized in contractions to initiate and perform various types of movements within the animal

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20
Q

Nervous tissue

A

Tissue that conducts impulses between parts of the body to accomplish physiological communication

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21
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

Tissue that covers body surface, lines body cavities, and forms glands

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22
Q

Connective tissue

A

Tissue that supports and binds other tissues, gives form and strength to organs, serve for protection and leverage, store energy, and transport materials throughout the body and prevent infections

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23
Q

Fibroblasts

A

Large flat cells that appear tappered at the ends. They produce the fibers and ground substance that forms the matrix of connective tissues

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24
Q

Ground substance

A

The area of connective tissue that looks clear or empty under a microscope. It is made up of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins.
- can be gelatinous, liquid (in blood plasma), or solid (in bone and cartilage)

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25
Q

Collagen fibers

A

long, fairly straight, and unbranched fibers made of collagen (protein) which reinforces the strength of tissues

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26
Q

Elastic fibers

A

Branched and wavy fibers that contain elastin (protein). These fibers give connective tissue the property of elasticity

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27
Q

Reticular fibers

A

Thin fibers that form the branched netlike interwoven framework of soft organs like the liver and spleen

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28
Q

Elastic connective tissue

A

Contain an abundance of kinked elastic fibers that regain their original shape after being stretched.

  • Produced by fibroblasts.
  • Locations: elastic arteries, ligamentum nuchae
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29
Q

Collagenous (white fibrous) connective tissue

A

Tissue in which there is a greater proportion of white inelastic fibers than of elastic fibers.

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30
Q

Dense regular white fibrous connective tissue

A

Collagen fibers are arranged in parallel bundles, forming cords, which gives the tissue considerable strength in one dimension.
- Location: tendons, ligaments

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31
Q

Dense irregular white fibrous connective tissue

A

Collagen fibers are arranged in thick mat & going in all directions, which gives the tissue strength int all directions
- Location: dermis of the skin, capsules that surround organs

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32
Q

Areolar (loose) connective tissue

A

Contains combos of collagenous, reticular, and elastic fibers that are loosely arranged. Found where protective cushioning and flexibility is needed

  • Produced by widely dispersed fibroblasts
  • Location: hypodermis of skin, lamina propria of digestive organs
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33
Q

Reticular connective tissue

A

Contain loosely arranged interlaced network of reticular fibers.

  • Produced by fibroblasts
  • Location: form the framework of soft organs like the liver, spleen and lymph nodes during embryonic and fetal developent
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34
Q

Adipose connective tissue

A

Composed of a loose array of collagen fibers with adipocytes (fat cells) deposited within.
- Produced by adipocytes

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35
Q

Adipocytes

A

Modified fibroblasts that take up fat for storage as inclusions within the cytoplasm. The nucleus gets pushed to the side of the adipocytes by the large fat inclusions.

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36
Q

White fat

A

Most common type of fat. Used for energy storage and cushioning of organs. Found widely distributed throughout animal

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37
Q

Brown fat

A

Used to produce heat for young animals and animals awakening from hibernation. Found primarily in fat deposits between shoulder blades (interscapular)

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38
Q

Cartilage

A

Specialized type of connective tissue that is firmer than fibrous connective tissues but softer than bone.
- Produced by chondrocytes (cartilage cells)

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39
Q

Hyaline cartilage

A

Transparent or clear cartilage that can form a smooth surface to reduce friction
- Location: glass-like covering of bone within joints, epiphyseal cartilage of long bones, costal cartilages of ribs, tracheal rings

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40
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Mixture of cartilage and collagen fibers that forms a semi-elastic cushion of great strength

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41
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

Mixture of cartilage and elastic fibers

- Location: external ear, larynx

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42
Q

Blood

A

A suspension of cells in an extracellular fluid (ECF) called plasma that circulates in the cardiovascular system

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43
Q

Bone

A

Composed of cells and non-cellular material

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44
Q

Ligamentum nuchae

A

A strong band elastic connective tissue that supports the head, particularly important in cattle and horses

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45
Q

External Environment

A

The external environment consists of the atmosphere surrounding the animal and also includes the lumen

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46
Q

Internal Environment

A

Environment inside of animal’s body

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47
Q

Cytosol (ICF)

A

Fluid component of cytoplasm

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48
Q

Total Body Water (TBW)

A

60% of an organism’s mass is fluid. Actual % will vary from 50-70% depending on the amount of adipose tissue

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49
Q

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

A

Fluid located inside cells. Accounts for 40% of the animal’s body weight. (1/2 TBW)

Intracellular fluid volume (ICF; liters) = 0.4 x weight of animal (kg)

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50
Q

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

A

Fluid found outside of cells. Accounts for 20% of the animal’s body weight (1/3 TBW)

Extracellular fluid volume (ECF; liters) = 0.2 x weight of animal (kg)

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51
Q

Blood Plasma

A

Fluid component of blood, which circulates in the cardiovascular system. Plasma is blood minus the blood cells.
- Plasma is 5% of the animal’s body weight.
Plasma volume (liters) = 0.05 x weight of animal (kg)
- Alternatively, plasma volume can be calculated as 25% of ECF volume. Plasma volume (liters) = 0.25 x ECF volume (liters)

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52
Q

Interstitial fluid (IF)

A

Fluid found between cells in tissues

  • Interstitial fluid 15% of the animal’s body weight. IF volume (IF; liters) = 0.15 x weight of animal (kg)
  • Alternatively, IF volume can be calculated as 75% of ECF volume. IF volume (liters) = 0.75 x ECF volume (liters)
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53
Q

Transcellular fluid compartment

A

A third body fluid compartment that includes cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, synovial fluids, intraocular fluids (aqueous and vitreous humor) and digestive fluids.

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54
Q

Transcapillary exchange

A

Solutes (and water) in the plasma move from the plasma into the interstitial fluid (IF) by crossing the capillary walls using a process called transcapillary exchange.

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55
Q

Epithelial tissues

A
  • Exchange
  • Secretion
  • Secretory epithelium
  • Exchange epithelium
  • Transporting epithelium
  • Protective epithelium
  • Ciliated epithelium
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56
Q

Apical (luminal or lumenal) surface

A

Free surface facing the lumen that can interact with lumenal contents of a hollow organ

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57
Q

Serial (basal) surface

A

Surface attached to basement membrane, which is the non-cellular layer of adhesive material that glues the epithelial cells to underlying connective tissue

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58
Q

Lateral Surface

A

Surface between adjacent epithelial cells
- The basal and lateral surfaces often have similar characteristics and are collectively referred to as the “basolateral surface”

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59
Q

Tight junctions (zonula occludens)

A

“Collars”; ribbon-like thickening of plasma membrane just below apical surface of epithelial cells that goes completely around periphery of cells (lateral surface)

FXN: anchor plasma membranes of neighboring cells together in a manner that restricts movement of water or dissolved materials (solutes) into the space between cells

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60
Q

Adherents junctions (belt desmosomes, zonula adherens)

A

Collar-like membrane thickening made up of actin microfilaments

FXN: Adherens junctions tightly bind plasma membrane of cells to neighboring adjacent cells

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61
Q

Desmosomes (button desmosomes; macula adherens)

A

“Spot welds”, localized thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes that are anchored to intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton

FXN: hold adjacent cells together

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62
Q

Hemidesmosomes

A

Spot welds that anchor cells to underlying basement membrane

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63
Q

Gap junctions

A

Pore-like structures that serve as sites of communication between adjacent epithelial cells. These pores permit exchange of molecules and ions between neighboring cells

FXN: link neighboring cells metabolically and electrically by allowing molecules and ions with a molecular weight

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64
Q

Simple epithelium

A

Single layer of epithelial cells that is usually well adapted to allow exchanges (diffusion ad filtration) of molecules and ions

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65
Q

Stratified epithelium

A

Multiple layers (2 or more) of epithelial cells that are often involved in protective functions

66
Q

Squamous epithelium

A

Flat plate-like cells

67
Q

Simple squamous epithelium

A

Single layer of flat plate-like cells

68
Q

Stratified squamous epithelium

A

Multiple layers of flat plate-like cells

69
Q

Cuboidal epithelium

A

Cells are roughly equal in size in all dimensions like a cube

70
Q

Simple cuboidal epithelium

A

Single layer of cube-shaped cells

71
Q

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

A

Multiple layers of cube-shaped cells

72
Q

Columnar Epithelium

A

Cells are cylindrical in shape

73
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

Single layer of columnar cells, which can be ciliates or nonciliated

74
Q

Stratified columnar epithelium

A

Multiple layers of cylindrical shaped cells

75
Q

Psuedostratified columnar epithelium

A

Composed of single layer of columnar cells of different lengths that gives the epithelium the false appearance of being stratified

76
Q

Protective epithelium

A

Composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells that are tightly held together by desmosomes. This type of epithelium serves to protect exposed surfaces and to prevent exchanges between the internal and external environment

EX: epidermis of the skin, lining of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, vagina, and urethra

77
Q

Exchange epithelium

A

Composed of very thin, simple squamous cells that allow gases (CO2 and O2) to pass through rapidly. Gaps and pores between these epithelial cells allow ions and molecules (smaller than proteins) to pass.

78
Q

Endothelium

A

Simple squamous epithelial cells that line the inside of all blood vessels, which are considered to be an exchange epithelium

79
Q

Transporting epithelium

A

Composed of simple columnar or cuboidal epithelial cells with tight tight junctions that prevent movement of solutes between the cells. These cells allow selective transport of no gaseous materials, like nutrients and ions, between the internal and external environment using specialized transcellular mechanisms.

80
Q

Ciliated epithelium

A

Composed of non-transporting cuboidal glandular cells that synthesize and release secretory products into the external environment or into the interstitial fluid (IF)

81
Q

Gland

A

A structure, formed by secretory epithelial cells, that secretes substances for use elsewhere in the body or releases them for elimination from the body

82
Q

Exocrine gland

A

Secrete their products through ducts into body cavities or onto body surfaces

83
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Secrete their products (hormones) into interstitial fluid (IF) around the secretory cells. Usually, secreted products then diffuse into capillaries and are carried in the bloodstream to their target cells

84
Q

Integument

A

Skin is the largest organ in the body

85
Q

Epidermis

A

Outer, thinner layer of skin

A stratified squamous protective equipment consisting of three types of cells

86
Q

Dermis

A

True skin - inner thicker layer of skin

87
Q

Keratinocytes

A
  • Principal structural cell of the epidermis
  • > 90% of the cells found in the epidermis
  • These cells produce a fibrous protein called keratin, which is the “water-proofing” and toughening protein in the skin
88
Q

Melanocytes

A

Pigment (melanin) producing cells that contribute to skin and hair color. There are different types of melanin, which produce different colors of skin and hair

89
Q

Langerhans cell

A

Function in immune protection within skin

90
Q

Stratum basale (Germinativum)

A

Single layer of columnar cells found just above dermis. These are the only epidermal cells that are capable of undergoing mitosis (cell division)

91
Q

Stratum Spinosum (spiny layer)

A

Composed of 8 to 10 layers of irregularly shaped cells with prominent desmosomes

92
Q

Stratum Granulosum

A

Consists of spindle-shaped cells that possess granules containing keratohyalin, which is a precursor needed for keratin formation. Cells in this layer are starting to degenerate and have high levels of lysosomes and degenerating nuclei.

93
Q

Stratum Lucidens (clear layer)

A

Found in a non-hairy areas of thick skin in humans, but not found in animals. This stratum is composed of three to five layers of dead, flattened keratinocytes of the stratum lucidum do not feature distinct boundaries and are filled with eleidin, an intermediate form of keratin.

94
Q

Stratum Corneum (horny layer)

A

Consists in most areas of the skin of many layers of flattened cells with no nuclei. This stratum consists of mostly keratin.

95
Q

Hypodermis

A

Areolor (loose) CT found under the dermis.

96
Q

Hair follicle

A

Develop as an ingrowth of epithelial cells (keratinocytes) of the epidermis into the dermis.
- ingrowth becomes the “hair follicle” from which a hair shaft will emerge.

97
Q

Compound hair follicle

A
  • dogs, cats, sheep, and goats have compound hair follicles that produce two types of hairs
98
Q

Primary or Guard hair

A

Long stiff hair in center of follicle

99
Q

Secondary hairs or undercoat

A

Shorter fine hairs approx 3 to 15 per follicle

100
Q

Arrector pilorum muscle

A

Bundle of smooth muscle fibers that extend at approx 45 degree angle from the deep portion of hair follicle up to epidermis. When these muscles contract, hair straightens up at 90 degree angle to the surface of the skin

101
Q

Sebaceous gland

A

Secrete sebum (oil) for skin and hair

102
Q

Sweat (sudoriferous) gland

A

Found over entire body of domestic animals (low density in hogs and carnivores)

Two Types:

  • Merocrine
  • Apocrine
103
Q

Cornification

A

The conversion of squamous epithelial cells (keratinocytes) of the skin into hardened keratinized (horny) material

  • fingernails, horns, hooves, claws, chestnuts, ergots
104
Q

Solvent

A

The liquid in which chemicals are dissolved

  • water in living organisms
  • need polar covalent bonds
105
Q

Solute

A

Substances that are dissolved in a solvent

- chemical

106
Q

Solution

A

The combination of solute(s) dissolved in a solvent

107
Q

Solubility

A

The degree to which a chemical dissolves in a solvent

108
Q

Hydrophilic (lipophobic)

A

“Water loving” (or fat hating)
- Chemicals that dissolve easily in water –> electrolytes, charged molecules, uncharged molecules with polar covalent bonds

109
Q

Hydrophobic (lipophilic)

A

“Water hating” (or fat loving)

  • molecules that do not dissolve in water
  • contain nonpolar covalent bonds
110
Q

Amphiphilic or amphipathic

A

Molecules that contain BOTH a charged or polar (hydrophilic) group and a nonpolar (hydrophobic) group

111
Q

Phospholipids

A

Amphiphilic molecules that form a fluid phospholipid bilayer in aqueous solutions

112
Q

Cholesterol

A

An important structural component of lipid bilayer.

  • hydrophobic and inserts into the hydrophobic region of the membrane
  • the single polar hydroxyl group orients near the hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids
113
Q

Glycosphingolipids (GSL)

A

Amphiphilic molecules that structurally resemble phospholipids with the main difference being that the phosphate-containing head group is replaced with carbohydrate group

114
Q

Passive transport

A

Membrane transport processes that do not require any direct energy expenditure of cellular energy (ATP)

115
Q

Active transport

A

Membrane transport process that require the expenditure of cellular energy usually in the form of ATP

116
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

A

The most common high energy compound used to accomplish work in cells

117
Q

Fluid Mosaic Model

A

Biological membranes are made up of a fluid lipid bilayer into which the integral membrane proteins are inserted
- membrane proteins then float in the fluid lipid bilayer allowing them to freely diffuse within the membrane

118
Q

Diffusion

A

A passive process

  • the distribution of a chemical substance in a solvent becomes equally concentrated
  • ours down a solutes concentration gradient
  • high solute concentration to low solute concentration
119
Q

Open channel

A

Simply pools formed by transmembrane proteins that are open all the time
- leak channels

120
Q

Gated channels

A

channels in the membrane that contain gates that ca be opened and closed in response to certain types of physiological stimuli

121
Q

Voltage-gated channels

A

Channels whose molecular conformation (opened or closed) responds to changes in the electrical potential across the cell membrane

122
Q

Ligand-gated channels

A

Channels whose molecular conformation (opened or closed) responds to the binding of a specific chemical (ligand)

123
Q

Ligand

A

Term used to describe any molecule that binds to a protein

124
Q

Mechanically-gated channels

A

Channels whose molecular conformations responds to physical stimuli like stretching of the membrane

125
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Passive transport process that operates down the concentration gradient but requires a carried protein instead of a channel

126
Q

Osmolarity

A

Concentration of a solution determined by multiplying the molarity of the solution by the number of particles that the chemical dissociates into when dissolved in water

127
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water

- passive movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane

128
Q

Tonicity

A

Characteristic of a solution defined by the response of cells when immersed in that solution

129
Q

Isotonic solution

A

Solution in which cells do not shrink or swell

- approx 300 mOsm

130
Q

Hypotonic solution

A
131
Q

Hypertonic solution

A

Water moves from inside the cell into the surrounding solution causing the cells to shrink (crenated)
- >300 mOsm

132
Q

Primary active transport

A

Active transport in which the energy for transport is derived directly from hydrolysis of ATP

133
Q

Secondary active transport

A

Active transport in which the energy for transport is derived secondarily from energy that has been stored in the form of a concentration gradient across a membrane
- requires primary active transport to create necessary conditions

134
Q

Uniporter

A

Moves a single solute from one side of the membrane to the other side
- in one direction

135
Q

Symporters

A

Transfer two (or more) solutes across the membrane in the same direction

136
Q

Antiporters

A

Transfer two (or more) solutes across the membrane in opposite directions

137
Q

Vestibular transport

A

Form of active transport used to move large molecules and particulates across the membrane

138
Q

Exocytosis

A

Process in which intracellular vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release the vesicles contents to the outside of the cell or to display membrane proteins or lipids on the cell’s surface

139
Q

Endocytosis

A

Process by which a cell brings molecules into the cell in vesicles formed by invagination of the plasma membrane. Vesicles containing extracellular materials form at the inner surface of the plasma membrane and are then brought into the cell

140
Q

Phagocytosis

A

“Cell eating”

Involves the ingestion of large substances or particles, such as microorganisms or dead cells, via large vesicles called phagosomes

141
Q

Pinocytes

A

“Cell drinking”

Involves ingest ions of ECF and solutes via small pinocytotic vesicles

142
Q

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis (RME)

A

Occurs when the binding of a ligand to a receptor triggers the Endocytosis of the resulting ligand-receptor complex

143
Q

Transepithelial transport

A

Chemical substances have to move all the way across an epithelium instead of just across a single membrane

144
Q

Transcellular route

A

When chemicals move across both membranes of the epithelial cells

145
Q

Paracellular route

A

When chemicals move between the epithelial cells

- dependent upon tight junctions

146
Q

Transcytosis

A

Various macromolecules are transported across the interior of a cell

147
Q

Homeostasis

A

Maintenance of a relatively constant state of an animal’s “Internal Environment”

148
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A

Changes induce other changes in order to remain the same

149
Q

Reflex pathway

A

Control pathways that involve sensing changes in an animal’s internal environment, integrating (evaluating) the sensory information, and responding appropriately to the change
- Nervous system, Endocrine system, Neuroendorcine control

150
Q

Response loop

A

The portion of a reflex pathway beginning with the stimulus and ending with the response of the effectors (or target cells)

151
Q

Feedback loop

A

Portion of a reflex pathway where the induced response feeds back and influences the response loop of control pathway

152
Q

Stimulus

A

The disturbance or change that activates the pathway

153
Q

Sensor or receptor

A

Cells that sense the stimulus or change

154
Q

Afferent (towards) path

A

When the sensor is stimulated, it will notify the integration center of the change by sending a signal along the afferent path

155
Q

Integration (control) center

A

Center that receives incoming signals and compares them to the setpoint for a particular factor

156
Q

Efferent (away from) path

A

When deviation from setpoint is detected, the integration center will send out a signal along an efferent path to an effector

157
Q

Effector

A

Target cell/tissue that carry out the response and bring about a change

158
Q

Negative feedback loop

A
  • Used to maintain homeostasis

- A stimulus (environmental change) is met by a response that reverses (negates) the trend or direction of the stimulus

159
Q

Positive feedback loop

A
  • Not involved in maintaining homeostasis

- A stimulus is met by a response that reinforces the trend of the stimulus instead of reversing it

160
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

The minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane.

It is also defined as the measure of the tendency of a solution to take in water by osmosis.

161
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity.

Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals (7 decks)

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