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BIO211 > Exam 1 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards

1
Q

hormone

A

long distance chemical messenger

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2
Q

types of hormones (2)

A 
amino acid based (water soluble)
steroid based (lipid soluble)
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3
Q

amino acid based hormones

A

(water soluble); makes up most hormones; act on plasma membrane receptors; cannot enter the cell; uses 2nd messenger system [hormone = 1st messenger. cAMP (cyclic AMP) = 2nd messenger]; free w/o carriers

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4
Q

steroid based hormones

A

(lipid soluble); synthesized from cholesterol; act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes; attached to plasma proteins (bound); can enter the cell

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5
Q

three factors of target cell specificity

A

1) amount of hormones in blood
2) relative # of receptors on or in target cell
3) affinity (strength) of binding between receptor & hormone (receptors can become saturated)

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6
Q

hormone permissiveness

A

one cannot exert its effects without another one being present
ex) thyroid hormone & growth hormone

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7
Q

hormone synergism

A

more than one hormone produces same effects to amplify target cell
ex) glucagon & epinephrine

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8
Q

hormone antagonism

A

one or more hormones opposes the action of another

ex) insulin & glucagon

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9
Q

endocrine system

A

system that provides hormones carried through the bloodstream for reproduction and/or growth
ex) pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal glands

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10
Q

target cells

A

cells that contain specific receptors for that hormone

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11
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

[posterior pituitary] retains water / helps to avoid dehydration; targets kidney tubules
ex) syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH) = hypersecretion of ADH which leads to fluid retention, headache & disorientation, brain edema

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12
Q

osmolarity

A

looks at amount of water in relationship to amount of solutes

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13
Q

osmoreceptors

A

monitors solute concentration of blood; (high solutes releases ADH)

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14
Q

oxytocin

A

[posterior pituitary] regulated by a positive feedback mechanism
ex) uterine contraction, milk “letdown” reflex, acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, “walkers or runners” high

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15
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

[heart] decreases blood Na+ concentration, therefore BP & blood volume

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16
Q

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] tropin / gonadotropin; stimulates egg in follicle (sperm in male); triggered by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty

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17
Q

tropin

A

a hormone that, when reaches target cell, causes the cell to produce another hormone
4/6 anterior pituitary hormones are tropins [FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH]

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18
Q

growth hormone (GH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] aka somatotopin; triggered by growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH); inhibited by growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) (aka somatostatin); increases blood sugar; encourages protein synthesis; stimulates cells of bone & skeletal muscle; stimulates liver & cartilage; as we age GH declines

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19
Q

thyroxine

A

T4; 2 tyrosine + 4 iodine atoms

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20
Q

triiodoathyronine

A

T3; 2 tyrosines + 3 iodine atoms

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21
Q

cortisol

A

[adrenal cortex / glucocorticoid] aka hydrocortisone; released in response to ACTH; patterns of eating / activity & stress; helps body resist stress by keeping blood sugar levels constant; maintains BP & promotes gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from noncarbohydrates)

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22
Q

aldosterone

A

[adrenal cortex / mineralocorticoid] retains sodium & eliminates potassium; secondary function controls water;
hypersecretion (aldosteronism) = excessive Na+ & excrete too much K+ (muscle weakness) & eventually MI
hyposecretion (addison’s disease) = decrease Na+ levels & glucose; weight loss; hypotension

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23
Q

luteinizing hormone (LH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] tropin / gonadotropin; matures egg in follicle; ovulation; releases estrogen; interstitial cell-stimulating hormone; produces testosterone

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24
Q

thymopoietin

A

[hormone of thymus gland] essential for development of T lymphocytes (T cells) of immune system

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25
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] stressor hormone; levels peak shortly before awakening; triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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26
Q

insulin

A

secreted when blood glucose levels increase; lowers blood glucose levels (hypoglycemic agent)

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27
Q

glucagon

A

hyperglycemic agent = increases blood glucose levels; targets liver

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28
Q

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

[anterior pituitary] inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormones; released by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

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29
Q

epinephrine & norepinephrine

A

[adrenal medulla] catecholamines; hyperglycemic hormone (increases blood glucose levels); increases heart rate; vasoconstriction; blood diverted to heart & skeletal muscle
hypersecretion= medullary chromaffin cell tumor (pheochromocytoma)
hyposecretion= not problematic

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30
Q

erythropoietin

A

signals production of red blood cells in kidneys and liver

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31
Q

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

[parathyroid gland] release increases Ca2+ in blood
hyperparathyroidism= hypercalcemia (high blood calcium); soft bones & skeletal muscle weakness
hypoparathyroidism= hypocalcemia; caused by removal of thyroid gland; not enough calcium in blood (makes neurons / muscles more excitable; tetany)

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32
Q

calcitonin

A

polypeptide hormone produced by parafollicular cells (C cells / extrafollicular cells) in response to high Ca2 levels; lowers blood calcium levels (tone it down)

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33
Q

melatonin

A

[pineal gland] involved with physiological processes
ex) seasonal affective disorder = results from extra melatonin & less serotonin
premenstrual syndrome= results from extra melatonin

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34
Q

prolactin (PRL)

A

[anterior pituitary] prolactin-releasing / inhibiting hormone; females (lactating); can only produce milk after placenta has been removed; suckling stimulates PRH release; in males, PRL is not understood

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35
Q

androgens

A

[adrenal cortex] gonadocorticoids; male sex hormone; converted to testosterone in tissue cells; may contribute to onset of puberty / appearance of secondary sex characteristics; sex drive in women; source of estrogens in postmenopausal women
ex) adrenogenital syndrome (masculinization) (hypersecretion) only noticed in females

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36
Q

progesterone

A

comes from ovaries; responsible for primary & secondary sex characteristics; maintaining pregnancy

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37
Q

testosterone

A

comes from testes; initiates maturation of male reproductive organs; causes appearance of secondary sexual characteristics & sex drive; is necessary for sperm production; maintains sex organs in their functional state for males

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38
Q

serotonin

A

[pineal gland] released during the day; “feel good hormone”

ex) seasonal affective disorder results from less serotonin

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39
Q

leptin

A

[from adipose tissue] tells body how much stored energy (as fat) you have; involved in feeling full & female menstrual cycle

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40
Q

up-regulation

A

increase amount of receptors on target cell

ex) uterus oxytocin receptors

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41
Q

down-regulation

A

decrease amount of receptors on target cell

ex) after birth

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42
Q

anterior pituitary

A

[adenohypophysis] vascular connection to hypothalamus via hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system; synthesizes & secretes # of hormones (can inhibit hormone release)

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43
Q

portal system

A

how releasing & inhibiting hormones of hypothalamus reaches anterior pituitary

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44
Q

posterior pituitary

A

[neurohypophysis] neural connection to hypothalamus via hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract; receives, stores & releases hormones from hypothalamus

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45
Q

tract

A

neural connection to hypothalamus

46
Q

zones of the adrenal cortex (3)

A

zona glomerulosa
zona fasciculata
zona reticularis

47
Q

major hormone produced in zona glomerulosa

A

aldosterone

48
Q

major hormone produced in zona fasciculata

A

coritsol

49
Q

major hormone produced in zona reticularis

A

androgens

50
Q

components of blood

A 
liquid plasma and formed elements:
plasma (≈55%)
erythrocytes (≈45%)
leukocytes (<1%)
platelets (thrombocytes) (<1%)
51
Q

hematocrit

A

percent of total blood volume that is RBCs

52
Q

amount and pH of blood

A

amount= 1.5 gallons (5-6 L)

pH of blood= 7.35-7.45

53
Q

functions of blood (3)

A

1) transport= oxygen, metabolic wastes, hormones, heat
2) regulation= appropriate body temp. & pH
3) protection= activates platelets for clotting; prevents infection

54
Q

what contributes to blood’s viscosity?

A

blood is thicker than water mainly due to its RBCs

55
Q

what contributes to blood’s osmolarity?

A

too high fluid absorption= high BP

too low osmolarity of blood= edema

56
Q

albumin

A

most abundant globular protein in blood plasma; responsible for blood’s osmolarity; helps keep fluid in bloodstream

57
Q

hemoglobin

A

protein that functions in gas transport and makes up 97% of an erythrocyte; consists of a heme group (with an atom of iron) and the protein globin

58
Q

what are the formed elements in blood?

A

erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes (platelets)

59
Q

primary function of erythrocytes (RBCs)

A

gas transport; major factor contributing to blood viscosity

60
Q

primary function of leukocytes (WBCs)

A

function in defense against disease

61
Q

primary function of thrombocytes (platelets)

A

function in clotting mechanism by forming temporary plug to seal breaks in vessels

62
Q

serum

A

plasma without clotting proteins

63
Q

hematopoiesis

A

formation of all blood cells

64
Q

erythropoiesis

A

RBC production

65
Q

factors necessary for erythropoiesis

A 
too few RBCs= tissue hypoxia / hypoxemia
too many RBCs= increase blood viscosity
balance of RBC production &amp; destruction depends on 
1) hormonal control
2) dietary requirements
66
Q

fate of erythrocytes

A

life span of 100-120 days; breakdown to heme, iron, and globin
heme → bilirubin (yellow pigment) + attaches to albumin for support & picked up by liver
iron → salvaged for reuse
globin → metabolized into amino acids

67
Q

chronic hemorrhagic anemia

A

slight but persistent blood loss (hemorrhoids, bleeding ulcer)

68
Q

iron deficiency anemia

A

caused by low iron intake or impaired absorption

69
Q

pernicious anemia

A

autoimmune disease (destroys stomach mucosa); caused by low dietary B12

70
Q

renal anemia

A

lack of / insufficient amount of EPO; often accompanies kidney disease

71
Q

aplastic anemia

A

destruction / inhibition of red marrow

72
Q

polycythemia

A

excess RBCs that increase blood viscosity thus leading to sluggish blood flow; can lead to embolism, stroke, heart failure

73
Q

polycythemia vera

A

due to cancer of red bone marrow

74
Q

thalassemia

A

occurs when one globin chain is absent / faulty

75
Q

sickle cell anemia

A 
mutated Hb; RBCs become crescent shaped when O2 levels are low; misshaped RBCs rupture easily &amp; block small vessels;
two copies (ss) can develop sickle cell anemia
76
Q

leukemia

A

overproduction of abnormal WBCs (cancerous)

77
Q

leukocytes from most abundant to least abundant

A 
[Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas]
neutrophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
eosinophils
basophils
78
Q

neutrophil

A

leukocyte; granulocyte; most numerous WBCs; nuclei consists of 3-6 lobes; polymorphonuclear leukocytes = very phagocytic & can do respiratory bursts

79
Q

eosinophil

A

leukocyte; granulocyte; bilobed nucleus; releases enzymes to digest parasitic worms; phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes

80
Q

basophil

A

leukocyte; granulocyte; rarest WBCs; U-S shaped nucleus (hard to see bc of granules); releases histamine= inflammatory chemical to attract WBCs to inflamed sites; releases heparin= anticoagulant

81
Q

lymphocyte

A

leukocyte; agranulocyte; crucial to immunity; T lymphocytes (t cells) destroys non-self cells (cancers, foreign virally infected cells); B-cells= give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies

82
Q

monocytes

A

leukocyte; agranulocyte; turn into macrophages= highly mobile & actively phagocytotic; “present” antigens to mount an immune response (APC= antigen presenting cells)

83
Q

where do platelets come from?

A

fragments of megakaryocyte; still contains granules

84
Q

hemostasis (& phases)

A

series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding; requires clotting factors

1) vascular spasm → vessel responds to injury w/ vasoconstriction; caused by damage to smooth muscle tissue
2) platelet plug formation → platelet stick to collagen fibers that are exposed when vessel is damaged
3) coagulation → blood clotting; reinforces platelet plug w/ fibrin threads; uses clotting factors (procoagulants)

85
Q

thrombus

A

clot that develops & persists in unbroken blood vessel

86
Q

embolus

A

free floating thrombus in bloodstream

87
Q

embolism

A

free floating thrombus lodged in small vessel

88
Q

role of thrombin & fibrinogen in coagulation

A

thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen → fibrin

89
Q

what are the blood types and what types do they receive from?

A

type A → receives from A & O
type B → receives from B & O
type AB → receives from A & B & AB & O
type O → receives from O

90
Q

universal donor blood type?

A

type O

91
Q

universal receiver blood type?

A

type AB

92
Q

significance of knowing Rh type in pregnancy?

A

when Rh- mom has Rh+ fetus, hemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis fetalis) can occur

93
Q

agglutinate

A

cause to clump together; appearance of immune response

94
Q

function of lymphatic tissue

A

returns interstitial fluid & proteins back to blood; protect body from infection / disease; absorption of digested lipids

95
Q

lymphocytes

A

main cells involved in immune response; arise in red bone marrow; mature to T cells and B cells

96
Q

T cells

A

mature in thymus; manage the immune response (helper T cells); attack & destroy foreign cells (cytotoxic T cells; can destroy non-self cells)

97
Q

B cells

A

produce plasma cells → antibodies; marks antigens for destruction by phagocytosis

98
Q

antigen presenting cells (APC)

A

macrophages (from monocytes); dendritic cells (found in epidermis, mucous membranes & lymphatic organs); B lymphocytes (act as their own APC)

99
Q

lymphoid tissue

A

reticular connective tissue; macrophages live here; provides proliferation site for lymphocytes

1) diffuse lymphoid tissue= found in every connective tissue; MALT= mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (passage that opens to exterior)
2) lymphoid follicles (nodules)= nodules have germinal center composed of dendritic & proliferating B cells

100
Q

lymphoid organs

A

1) primary lymphoid organs= bone marrow & thymus; where T & B cells mature
2) secondary lymphoid organs= lymph nodes, spleen, peyer’s patches, appendix & tonsils; where mature lymphocytes 1st encounter their antigen & become activated

101
Q

lacteal

A

specialized lymph capillary present in intestinal mucosa; absorbs digested fats

102
Q

tunics of lymphatic vessels (3)

A

tunica interna → endothelium & valves
tunica media → elastic fibers & smooth muscle
tunica externa → thin outer connective tissue

103
Q

how is lymph transported?

A

lymph flows by

1) skeletal muscle pump; valves to prevent backflow
2) respiratory pump

104
Q

lymphedema

A

severe localized edema; caused by anything that prevents normal return of lymph to blood

105
Q

lymph nodes

A

principle secondary lymphoid organs of body;

ex) inguinal, axillary, cervical regions
1) cleans lymph & immune system activator
2) distinct regions: cortex (outside) & medulla (middle)

106
Q

tonsils

A

simplest lymphoid organ; protect nasal cavity & pharynx; contains follicles w/ germinal centers & scattered lymphocytes; epithelial tissue overlays tonsil to form tonsillar crypts= trap & destroy bacteria & particulate matter

107
Q

location of tonsils

A

palatine tonsils → pair on both sides of posterior end of oral cavity; largest & most infected
lingual tonsils → pair that lies @ base of tongue
pharyngeal tonsil → single tonsil on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx; “adenoids” when infected
tubal tonsils → surround the openings of the auditory tubes into the pharynx

108
Q

swollen & sore lymph nodes vs. just swollen lymph nodes

A

swollen + sore lymph nodes are created by foreign antigens

swollen lymph nodes (w/o soreness) are created by metastatic cancer

109
Q

innate (nonspecific) defense

A

constitutes 1st & 2nd lines of defense;
1st= external body membranes (skin & mucosae)
2nd= antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, fever, inflammation (most important mechanism), natural killer cells

110
Q

adaptive (specific) defense

A

3rd line of defense; attacks particular foreign substances (takes longer to react than innate)
[3rd line of defense (adaptive / specific) does not stop 1st or 2nd]

111
Q

phagocytes

A

[nonspecific] WBCs that ingest & digest foreign invaders

ex) neutrophils & macrophages

112
Q

natural killer (NK) cells

A

[nonspecific] special type of lymphocyte; can kill cancer & virus-infected cells before adaptive immune system is activated
ex) apoptosis= destroy cell within
perforins= cause cells to leak

BIO211 (4 decks)

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