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BIO211 > Exam 1 Study Guide > Flashcards

Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards

1
Q

hormone

A

long distance chemical messenger

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2
Q

types of hormones (2)

A 
amino acid based (water soluble)
steroid based (lipid soluble)
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3
Q

amino acid based hormones

A

(water soluble); makes up most hormones; act on plasma membrane receptors; cannot enter the cell; uses 2nd messenger system [hormone = 1st messenger. cAMP (cyclic AMP) = 2nd messenger]; free w/o carriers

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4
Q

steroid based hormones

A

(lipid soluble); synthesized from cholesterol; act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes; attached to plasma proteins (bound); can enter the cell

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5
Q

three factors of target cell specificity

A

1) amount of hormones in blood
2) relative # of receptors on or in target cell
3) affinity (strength) of binding between receptor & hormone (receptors can become saturated)

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6
Q

hormone permissiveness

A

one cannot exert its effects without another one being present
ex) thyroid hormone & growth hormone

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7
Q

hormone synergism

A

more than one hormone produces same effects to amplify target cell
ex) glucagon & epinephrine

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8
Q

hormone antagonism

A

one or more hormones opposes the action of another

ex) insulin & glucagon

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9
Q

endocrine system

A

system that provides hormones carried through the bloodstream for reproduction and/or growth
ex) pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal glands

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10
Q

target cells

A

cells that contain specific receptors for that hormone

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11
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

[posterior pituitary] retains water / helps to avoid dehydration; targets kidney tubules
ex) syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH) = hypersecretion of ADH which leads to fluid retention, headache & disorientation, brain edema

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12
Q

osmolarity

A

looks at amount of water in relationship to amount of solutes

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13
Q

osmoreceptors

A

monitors solute concentration of blood; (high solutes releases ADH)

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14
Q

oxytocin

A

[posterior pituitary] regulated by a positive feedback mechanism
ex) uterine contraction, milk “letdown” reflex, acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, “walkers or runners” high

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15
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

[heart] decreases blood Na+ concentration, therefore BP & blood volume

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16
Q

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] tropin / gonadotropin; stimulates egg in follicle (sperm in male); triggered by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty

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17
Q

tropin

A

a hormone that, when reaches target cell, causes the cell to produce another hormone
4/6 anterior pituitary hormones are tropins [FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH]

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18
Q

growth hormone (GH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] aka somatotopin; triggered by growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH); inhibited by growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) (aka somatostatin); increases blood sugar; encourages protein synthesis; stimulates cells of bone & skeletal muscle; stimulates liver & cartilage; as we age GH declines

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19
Q

thyroxine

A

T4; 2 tyrosine + 4 iodine atoms

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20
Q

triiodoathyronine

A

T3; 2 tyrosines + 3 iodine atoms

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21
Q

cortisol

A

[adrenal cortex / glucocorticoid] aka hydrocortisone; released in response to ACTH; patterns of eating / activity & stress; helps body resist stress by keeping blood sugar levels constant; maintains BP & promotes gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from noncarbohydrates)

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22
Q

aldosterone

A

[adrenal cortex / mineralocorticoid] retains sodium & eliminates potassium; secondary function controls water;
hypersecretion (aldosteronism) = excessive Na+ & excrete too much K+ (muscle weakness) & eventually MI
hyposecretion (addison’s disease) = decrease Na+ levels & glucose; weight loss; hypotension

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23
Q

luteinizing hormone (LH)

A

[anterior pituitary gland] tropin / gonadotropin; matures egg in follicle; ovulation; releases estrogen; interstitial cell-stimulating hormone; produces testosterone

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24
Q

thymopoietin

A

[hormone of thymus gland] essential for development of T lymphocytes (T cells) of immune system

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25
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
[anterior pituitary gland] stressor hormone; levels peak shortly before awakening; triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
26
insulin
secreted when blood glucose levels increase; lowers blood glucose levels (hypoglycemic agent)
27
glucagon
hyperglycemic agent = increases blood glucose levels; targets liver
28
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
[anterior pituitary] inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormones; released by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
29
epinephrine & norepinephrine
[adrenal medulla] catecholamines; hyperglycemic hormone (increases blood glucose levels); increases heart rate; vasoconstriction; blood diverted to heart & skeletal muscle hypersecretion= medullary chromaffin cell tumor (pheochromocytoma) hyposecretion= not problematic
30
erythropoietin
signals production of red blood cells in kidneys and liver
31
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
[parathyroid gland] release increases Ca2+ in blood hyperparathyroidism= hypercalcemia (high blood calcium); soft bones & skeletal muscle weakness hypoparathyroidism= hypocalcemia; caused by removal of thyroid gland; not enough calcium in blood (makes neurons / muscles more excitable; tetany)
32
calcitonin
polypeptide hormone produced by parafollicular cells (C cells / extrafollicular cells) in response to high Ca2 levels; lowers blood calcium levels (tone it down)
33
melatonin
[pineal gland] involved with physiological processes ex) seasonal affective disorder = results from extra melatonin & less serotonin premenstrual syndrome= results from extra melatonin
34
prolactin (PRL)
[anterior pituitary] prolactin-releasing / inhibiting hormone; females (lactating); can only produce milk after placenta has been removed; suckling stimulates PRH release; in males, PRL is not understood
35
androgens
[adrenal cortex] gonadocorticoids; male sex hormone; converted to testosterone in tissue cells; may contribute to onset of puberty / appearance of secondary sex characteristics; sex drive in women; source of estrogens in postmenopausal women ex) adrenogenital syndrome (masculinization) (hypersecretion) only noticed in females
36
progesterone
comes from ovaries; responsible for primary & secondary sex characteristics; maintaining pregnancy
37
testosterone
comes from testes; initiates maturation of male reproductive organs; causes appearance of secondary sexual characteristics & sex drive; is necessary for sperm production; maintains sex organs in their functional state for males
38
serotonin
[pineal gland] released during the day; "feel good hormone" | ex) seasonal affective disorder results from less serotonin
39
leptin
[from adipose tissue] tells body how much stored energy (as fat) you have; involved in feeling full & female menstrual cycle
40
up-regulation
increase amount of receptors on target cell | ex) uterus oxytocin receptors
41
down-regulation
decrease amount of receptors on target cell | ex) after birth
42
anterior pituitary
[adenohypophysis] vascular connection to hypothalamus via hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system; synthesizes & secretes # of hormones (can inhibit hormone release)
43
portal system
how releasing & inhibiting hormones of hypothalamus reaches anterior pituitary
44
posterior pituitary
[neurohypophysis] neural connection to hypothalamus via hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract; receives, stores & releases hormones from hypothalamus
45
tract
neural connection to hypothalamus
46
zones of the adrenal cortex (3)
zona glomerulosa zona fasciculata zona reticularis
47
major hormone produced in zona glomerulosa
aldosterone
48
major hormone produced in zona fasciculata
coritsol
49
major hormone produced in zona reticularis
androgens
50
components of blood
``` liquid plasma and formed elements: plasma (≈55%) erythrocytes (≈45%) leukocytes (<1%) platelets (thrombocytes) (<1%) ```
51
hematocrit
percent of total blood volume that is RBCs
52
amount and pH of blood
amount= 1.5 gallons (5-6 L) | pH of blood= 7.35-7.45
53
functions of blood (3)
1) transport= oxygen, metabolic wastes, hormones, heat 2) regulation= appropriate body temp. & pH 3) protection= activates platelets for clotting; prevents infection
54
what contributes to blood's viscosity?
blood is thicker than water mainly due to its RBCs
55
what contributes to blood's osmolarity?
too high fluid absorption= high BP | too low osmolarity of blood= edema
56
albumin
most abundant globular protein in blood plasma; responsible for blood's osmolarity; helps keep fluid in bloodstream
57
hemoglobin
protein that functions in gas transport and makes up 97% of an erythrocyte; consists of a heme group (with an atom of iron) and the protein globin
58
what are the formed elements in blood?
erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes (platelets)
59
primary function of erythrocytes (RBCs)
gas transport; major factor contributing to blood viscosity
60
primary function of leukocytes (WBCs)
function in defense against disease
61
primary function of thrombocytes (platelets)
function in clotting mechanism by forming temporary plug to seal breaks in vessels
62
serum
plasma without clotting proteins
63
hematopoiesis
formation of all blood cells
64
erythropoiesis
RBC production
65
factors necessary for erythropoiesis
``` too few RBCs= tissue hypoxia / hypoxemia too many RBCs= increase blood viscosity balance of RBC production & destruction depends on 1) hormonal control 2) dietary requirements ```
66
fate of erythrocytes
life span of 100-120 days; breakdown to heme, iron, and globin heme → bilirubin (yellow pigment) + attaches to albumin for support & picked up by liver iron → salvaged for reuse globin → metabolized into amino acids
67
chronic hemorrhagic anemia
slight but persistent blood loss (hemorrhoids, bleeding ulcer)
68
iron deficiency anemia
caused by low iron intake or impaired absorption
69
pernicious anemia
autoimmune disease (destroys stomach mucosa); caused by low dietary B12
70
renal anemia
lack of / insufficient amount of EPO; often accompanies kidney disease
71
aplastic anemia
destruction / inhibition of red marrow
72
polycythemia
excess RBCs that increase blood viscosity thus leading to sluggish blood flow; can lead to embolism, stroke, heart failure
73
polycythemia vera
due to cancer of red bone marrow
74
thalassemia
occurs when one globin chain is absent / faulty
75
sickle cell anemia
``` mutated Hb; RBCs become crescent shaped when O2 levels are low; misshaped RBCs rupture easily & block small vessels; two copies (ss) can develop sickle cell anemia ```
76
leukemia
overproduction of abnormal WBCs (cancerous)
77
leukocytes from most abundant to least abundant
``` [Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas] neutrophils lymphocytes monocytes eosinophils basophils ```
78
neutrophil
leukocyte; granulocyte; most numerous WBCs; nuclei consists of 3-6 lobes; polymorphonuclear leukocytes = very phagocytic & can do respiratory bursts
79
eosinophil
leukocyte; granulocyte; bilobed nucleus; releases enzymes to digest parasitic worms; phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes
80
basophil
leukocyte; granulocyte; rarest WBCs; U-S shaped nucleus (hard to see bc of granules); releases histamine= inflammatory chemical to attract WBCs to inflamed sites; releases heparin= anticoagulant
81
lymphocyte
leukocyte; agranulocyte; crucial to immunity; T lymphocytes (t cells) destroys non-self cells (cancers, foreign virally infected cells); B-cells= give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies
82
monocytes
leukocyte; agranulocyte; turn into macrophages= highly mobile & actively phagocytotic; "present" antigens to mount an immune response (APC= antigen presenting cells)
83
where do platelets come from?
fragments of megakaryocyte; still contains granules
84
hemostasis (& phases)
series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding; requires clotting factors 1) vascular spasm → vessel responds to injury w/ vasoconstriction; caused by damage to smooth muscle tissue 2) platelet plug formation → platelet stick to collagen fibers that are exposed when vessel is damaged 3) coagulation → blood clotting; reinforces platelet plug w/ fibrin threads; uses clotting factors (procoagulants)
85
thrombus
clot that develops & persists in unbroken blood vessel
86
embolus
free floating thrombus in bloodstream
87
embolism
free floating thrombus lodged in small vessel
88
role of thrombin & fibrinogen in coagulation
thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen → fibrin
89
what are the blood types and what types do they receive from?
type A → receives from A & O type B → receives from B & O type AB → receives from A & B & AB & O type O → receives from O
90
universal donor blood type?
type O
91
universal receiver blood type?
type AB
92
significance of knowing Rh type in pregnancy?
when Rh- mom has Rh+ fetus, hemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis fetalis) can occur
93
agglutinate
cause to clump together; appearance of immune response
94
function of lymphatic tissue
returns interstitial fluid & proteins back to blood; protect body from infection / disease; absorption of digested lipids
95
lymphocytes
main cells involved in immune response; arise in red bone marrow; mature to T cells and B cells
96
T cells
mature in thymus; manage the immune response (helper T cells); attack & destroy foreign cells (cytotoxic T cells; can destroy non-self cells)
97
B cells
produce plasma cells → antibodies; marks antigens for destruction by phagocytosis
98
antigen presenting cells (APC)
macrophages (from monocytes); dendritic cells (found in epidermis, mucous membranes & lymphatic organs); B lymphocytes (act as their own APC)
99
lymphoid tissue
reticular connective tissue; macrophages live here; provides proliferation site for lymphocytes 1) diffuse lymphoid tissue= found in every connective tissue; MALT= mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (passage that opens to exterior) 2) lymphoid follicles (nodules)= nodules have germinal center composed of dendritic & proliferating B cells
100
lymphoid organs
1) primary lymphoid organs= bone marrow & thymus; where T & B cells mature 2) secondary lymphoid organs= lymph nodes, spleen, peyer's patches, appendix & tonsils; where mature lymphocytes 1st encounter their antigen & become activated
101
lacteal
specialized lymph capillary present in intestinal mucosa; absorbs digested fats
102
tunics of lymphatic vessels (3)
tunica interna → endothelium & valves tunica media → elastic fibers & smooth muscle tunica externa → thin outer connective tissue
103
how is lymph transported?
lymph flows by 1) skeletal muscle pump; valves to prevent backflow 2) respiratory pump
104
lymphedema
severe localized edema; caused by anything that prevents normal return of lymph to blood
105
lymph nodes
principle secondary lymphoid organs of body; ex) inguinal, axillary, cervical regions 1) cleans lymph & immune system activator 2) distinct regions: cortex (outside) & medulla (middle)
106
tonsils
simplest lymphoid organ; protect nasal cavity & pharynx; contains follicles w/ germinal centers & scattered lymphocytes; epithelial tissue overlays tonsil to form tonsillar crypts= trap & destroy bacteria & particulate matter
107
location of tonsils
palatine tonsils → pair on both sides of posterior end of oral cavity; largest & most infected lingual tonsils → pair that lies @ base of tongue pharyngeal tonsil → single tonsil on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx; "adenoids" when infected tubal tonsils → surround the openings of the auditory tubes into the pharynx
108
swollen & sore lymph nodes vs. just swollen lymph nodes
swollen + sore lymph nodes are created by foreign antigens | swollen lymph nodes (w/o soreness) are created by metastatic cancer
109
innate (nonspecific) defense
constitutes 1st & 2nd lines of defense; 1st= external body membranes (skin & mucosae) 2nd= antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, fever, inflammation (most important mechanism), natural killer cells
110
adaptive (specific) defense
3rd line of defense; attacks particular foreign substances (takes longer to react than innate) [3rd line of defense (adaptive / specific) does not stop 1st or 2nd]
111
phagocytes
[nonspecific] WBCs that ingest & digest foreign invaders | ex) neutrophils & macrophages
112
natural killer (NK) cells
[nonspecific] special type of lymphocyte; can kill cancer & virus-infected cells before adaptive immune system is activated ex) apoptosis= destroy cell within perforins= cause cells to leak

BIO211 (4 decks)

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