Exam 1 prep Flashcards
1
Q
A pattern of light striking the eye and making photo-receptors activate is _____, whereas recognizing the pattern of light as a cat is _____.
A
Sensation; perception
2
Q
Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception might measure the lowest volume that you can hear at different frequencies?
A
Threshold
3
Q
Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception studies how people make difficult perceptual decisions?
A
Signal detection theory
4
Q
Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception might measure your brain activity while taking a hearing test?
A
Neuroimaging
5
Q
Which psycho-physical law focuses on magnitude estimations?
A
Stevens’s power law
6
Q
If the experimenter adjusts the stimulus to change it from when you could perceive it until you just barely can’t perceive it, they are using…
A
The method of limits.
7
Q
If you go to the hospital and they ask you to rate your current level of pain from 1 to 100, they are asking you to perform…
A
magnitude estimation.
8
Q
If you are asked to compare the smoothness of silk to the sweetness of an apple, that is…
A
cross-modality matching.
9
Q
Which concept refers to the observer’s ability to detect a signal amidst noise?
A
Sensitivity.
10
Q
Nervous System
A
A complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.
11
Q
Sensory Nervous System
A
Responsible for processing sensory info.
12
Q
Everything we _____ happens through taste, hearing, sight, smell, and movement
A
Experience
13
Q
Sensation
A
The ability to detect stimulus.
14
Q
Perception
A
The act of giving meaning to a detected sensation.
15
Q
Mental Life
A
The functional activity related to sensation, reasoning and voluntary action.
16
Q
The study of our sensations and perceptions was a mix of experimental science and _____.
A
Philosophy
17
Q
It should be possible to describe the relationship between _____ (mind) and _____ (matter) using mathematics.
A
Sensation; Energy
17
Q
Psychophysics
A
The science of defining quantitative relationships between physical and psychological (subjective) events.
18
Q
Psycho-physicists usually employ experimental stimuli that can be objectively _____.
A
Measured
19
Q
Absolute Threshold
A
The point of intensity at which the participant can just detect the presence of a stimulus.
20
Q
Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
A
The difference required for detecting a change.
21
Q
Discrimination Threshold
A
The detectable presence of a difference between two stimuli.
22
Q
The ability to detect the difference depended on the weight of the _____.
A
Standard
23
Q
The smallest detectable difference that could be detected was always close to _____ of the standard.
A
1/40th
24
Webber's Law
States the discrimination threshold is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus.
25
Scaling
measuring private experience.
26
Evolution
The process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms.
27
The Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
The nature of a sensation depends on which sensory fibers are stimulated, not on how the fibers are stimulated.
28
We are only aware of the activity our _____ and not the world.
nerves
29
Innervate
To supply with nerves
30
Afferent
Projections that arrive at a particular brain region.
31
Efferent
Projections that exit a particular brain region.
32
Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of nerves (one for each side of the body) that originate in the brain stem and reach sense organs and muscles through openings in the skull.
33
Cranial nerves can carry exclusively _____ information, exclusively _____ information, or _____.
sensory; motor; both
34
Olfactory bulb
Receives primary input from the olfactory receptors neurons in the olfactory epithelium.
35
Olfactory cortex
Primary cortical receiving area for smell.
36
Gustatory cortex
Primary cortical receiving area for taste (gustation).
37
Motor cortex
Engaged in balance, touch, and some auditory processing.
38
Somatosensory cortex
Primary cortical receiving area for touch sensations (mechanoreception).
39
Primary (1st degree) Visual Cortex
Primary cortical area for visual processing from the retina.
40
Auditory cortex
The primary cortical receiving area for hearing (audition).
41
Polysensory
The blending of multiple sensory systems
42
Neuron
An electrical exitahble cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.
43
Glia Cell
Non-neural cells in the brain.
44
Synapse
The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass.
45
Action Potential
An all-or-none electrochemical signal generated by neurons in response to above-threshold stimulation.
46
Neurotransmitter
Any substnace responsible for sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons.
47
Ion Channel
A pore-forming membrane protein that allow ions to pass through the channel pore.
47
Voltage Gated Ion Chanel
Ion channels that change their structurte in response to voltage changes.
47
Ligand Gated Ion Chanel
Ion channels that open or close depending on binding of a specific type of molecule (a ligand) to the channel.
48
Information collected by dendrites is integrated inthe axon hillock which generates _____.
Action potentials
49
Axon terminals _____ with a target cell, often releaseing ______.
synapse; neurotransmitter
50
_____ receive information from other neurons.
Dendrites
51
The _____ conducts action potential away from the cell body.
axon
52
If you had a stroke that damaged your parietal lobe, which sense would be most likely to be impaired?
Touch
53
If you accidentally hit your head you might see starts, even if no actual light flashes. This fact is predicted by:
The doctrine of specific nerve energies.
54
Which statement is TRUE about the glossopharyngeal nerve?
It innervates the posterior tongue, tonsils, pharynx and pharyngeal muscles.
55
Odors activating sensory neurons in your nose is _____; interpreting a neural response as the sent of apple pie is ____.
sensation; perception
56
The science of defining quantitative relationships between physical and subjective events is known as...
psychophysics
57
This German philosopher was bedridden and described the relationship between sensation(mind) and energy (matter) using math.
Gustave Fechner
58
Neurons communicate through a web of _____.
Axons
59
Neighboring neurons of one brain region often connect to neighboring neurons in another region. This is called...
Topographic projections
60
Divergence
Axons nay split into two or more branches that project to different targets.
Allows for info from one neuron to be transmitted to several other neurons, which can then use the information differently
61
Convergence
Neurons may receive input from two or more other neurons.
Allows for information from different neurons to be integrated.
62
Neurons are separate _____ with tiny gaps between them.
cells
63
Ahe3rrington proposed the term "_____" meaning to clasp to describe the structure, 1897
synapse
64
Neuron doctrine
The idea that each neuron is a distinct cell (Not cont8inuous with other neurons).
65
Voltage Gated Ion Channel
Ion channels that change third structure in response to voltage changes.
66
"Leak" Channels
a non-gated channel that generally stays 9pen and allows ions to "leak" out of a neuron at rest.
67
Intracellular recording of a neuron at rest...
-70mV
68
Resting Potential
The voltage difference between the inside and outside of the neuron.
69
Action Potential
A brief reversal of polarity of the membrane potential.
70
Ion
an atom or molecule with a net positive or negative electrical charge.
71
High concentration of _____ ions in vs out (20:1)
Potassium
72
Low concentration of _____ ions in vs out. (9:1)
Sodium
73
Transporting Ions requires _____.
ATP
74
Selective Permeability
The ability to allow some ions or small molecules to pass into or out of the cell regularly
75
Concentration Gradient
A difference in concentration of ions across two sides of a cell membrane.
76
Electrical Potential Gradient
A difference in electrical potential between the inside of a cell and its surrounding extracellular space
77
K+ ions will start to diffuse _____ along their concentration gradient
Out
78
The net movement of potassium through all of these mechanisms that sets a neuron's _____ potential a -70 mV.
resting membrane
79
At the beginning of an action potential, the axonal membrane suddenly becomes highly permeable to _____ ions
Na+
80
Resting Phase:
Voltage gated Na+ channels open and allow Na+ ions to flow.
81
Depolarization:
Negative internal charge of the cell becomes briefly positive
82
Graded Potential
The strength of the current pulses can vary leading to different degrees of depolarization with different outcomes.
83
Repolarization
The process that brings the membrane potential back towards its resting value after a strong depolarization
84
Hyperpolarization
Chang in the cell's membrane potential to below the resting potential
85
Action potentials are initiated in the _____.
Axon hillock
86
Action potentials travel along axons because the massive influx of _____ that one location of the axonal membrane tends to trigger Na+ influx at adjacent locations
Na+ ions
87
Refractory period
A period following an action potential when the neuron cannot generate another action potential.
88
Myelin Sheath
A multilayered wrapper of myelin-rich glial cell membranes around an axon.
89
Node of Ranvier
A small gap in the myelin sheath usually occurring at regular intervals along the axon.
90
Saltatory Conduction
Action potentials can "jump" from one node of Ranvier to another further down the axon.
91
Myelination: The pros
Decrease in signal transmission time
Saves metabolic energy
Good biological design
92
Myelination: The cons
Myelin isn't entirely cost free
Myelin is bulky
93
Synapse
The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass.
94
Neurotransmitter
Any substance responsible for sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons
95
pre-synaptic
In a synaps, of or pertaining to the neuron that sencds the signal.
96
Postsynaptic
In a synapse, of or pertaining to the neuron that bears receptors to receive the signal.
97
Voltage-gated ion channels
Ion channels that change their structure in response to voltage changes.
98
Ligand-gated ion channels
Ion channels that open or close depending on binding of a specific type of molecule (a ligand) to the channel.
99
Synaptic-Transmission
Information transfer at a synapes
100
Neurotransmitter
A chemical substance used in neural communication at chemical synaps.
101
Can have an _____ or _____ effect on the postsynaptic neuron.
excitatory; inhibitory
102
synapse
A "gap" where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
103
Converts an electrical signal (_____) into a chemical one (_____).
Action potential; neurotransmitter
104
Synaptic Cleft
The space between neurons across which a nerve inpulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter.
105
Synaptic vesicle
Membranous vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules, located inside the presynaptic component of a chemical synapse.
106
Glutamate (_____ neurotransmitter)
excitatory
107
Voltage-gated calcium Ca2+ channels
A Ca2+ channel that greatly increases its probability of being open when the cell is depolarized above a threshold value.
108
Exocytosis
A form of active transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell.
109
Membranes are drawn together via protein complexes called _____.
snares
110
Relseases _____ into the synaptic cleft.
neurotransmitters
111
Binding of neurotransmitter opens ligand-gated ion channels resulting in a _____.
graded potential
112
Reduction of neurotransmitter levels, terminating the signal : 1 of 3 ways
Re-uptake by pre-synaptic neuron
Enzymatic degradation
Diffusion
113
Binding of neurotransmitter opens ligand-gated ion channels, resulting in a _____.
graded potential
114
Selective permeability
The ability of a membrane to allow some ions or small molecules to pass into or out of the cell regularly, while restricting the passage of others.
115
Graded-potential
A smaLL DEVIATION FROM THE MEMBRANE RESTING POTENTIAL THAT VARIES IN SIZE
116
EPSP
A postsynaptic potential that makes the postynaptic neuron MORE likely to fire an action potential.
117
IPSP
A postynaptic potenial that makes the postsynaptic neuron LESS likely to fire an actio potential.
118
Negative internal change of the cell becomes briefly _____.
positive
119
Apmlitude of EPSP is directly proportional to the number of _____ reloeased.
synaptic vesicles
120
Quantal
Varying in discrete steps rather than continuously
121
EPSP caused by synapses close to the cell body (i.e. _____ synapses) tend to generate more depolarization at the axon hillock than do synapses far out on the dendritic tree (_____ synapses)
Proximal; distal
122
Spacial summation
Synaptic potentials generated in different parts of a neuron will be additive in their overall effect.
123
temporal summation
Synaptic potentials that overlap in time will be additive in their overall effect.
124
The membrane potential of the axon hillock at any given moment represents the sum of _____ that have arrived at the axon hillock within the same 10-30 m mins.
all of the ESPSs
125
Change in the cell's membrane potential that makes it more _____.
negative
126
Hyperpolarization (_____) inhibits action potentials.
IPSP
127
Molecules of curate block the _____, preventing ACh from binding
receptors
128
Sensory (Afferent) neurons
Respond to sensory stimuli
129
Motor (efferent) neurons
Deliver output to muscles or glands
130
Neurite
Any projection from the cell body of a neuron
131
Have a _____ short process leaving the cell body
single
132
dendretic spine
Small, mushroom-shaped protrusion on dendrites
133
Axons are generally not thinner _____ in diameter.
0.1um
134
Neuron cell bodies are _____ or larger.
4-5 um
135
Glutamate: Major _____ neurotransmitter in the brain
excitatory
136
Gaba: Major _____ neurotransmitter in the brain.
inhibitory
137
Ionotropic receptors
Resembles ion channels, with a central pore through which ions can flow.
138
Effect may be Excitation or Inhibitory; occur _____, lasts only a _____ time.
quickly; short
139
When _____ bonds to the extracellular domain, the NMDA receptor changes shape to widen its central pore through which _____ may flow.
glutasmate; ions
140
Metabotropic Receptors
No central pore, but open and close nearby channels via intracellular signaling cascades.
141
Takes _____ to develop, lasts _____.
Longer; a long time
142
Different aspects of an individual neuron's firing (if it fires, how often it fires) can _____ and transmit information.
encode
143
Different auditory neurons fire in response to different sound _____.
frequencies
144
Sensory input must be _____.
filtered
145
Sparse coding
The idea that neurons filter out redundant information.
146
Efficient coding modles
Assumes that sensory systems become turned to predictability in ways that highlight less predictable inputs.
147
Neurons that respond selectively to features of the stimulus that occur most _____ in natural stimuli.
frequent
148
Matching neural stimulus preference to natural stimulus features saves _____ and _____.
energy; space
149
Complex features and objects can be encoded in the _____ of firing of a subset of neurons.
pattern
150
Population coding
Sensory information is represented in the activity of many different neurons.
151
Principle 1: Information sensors provide is _____.
incomplete and veriable
152
Sensors are "_____" to a specific range of stimuli.
tuned
153
Their sensitivity to these stimuli is typically _____.
adjustable
154
Sensing is _____ expensive: It is adaptive to possess the sensors most important for a species.
metabolically
155
Background adaptation
The idea that sensors gradually stop responding to steady persistent stimuli
156
Tonotopic Map
A sounds frequency (pitch is represented in a map like fashion across a brain region, such that adjacent neurons are tuned to similar sound frequencies.
157
This topography _____ connection lengths between neurons encoding similar stimuli.
minimizes
158
Sensory Transduction
The process by which an external stimulus (e.g. a sound) is converted into a change in the electrical activity of sensory neurons or other sensory cells.
159
Photo transduction
The process converting light energy (photons)n is converted into a change in the electrical activity of the photoreceptors.
160
Photon
A particle representing a quantum of light.
161
Reflected
Energy that is redirected whin it strikes a surface, usually back to its point of origin.
162
Refracted
Energy that is altered as it passes into another medium.
163
Iris
Colored part of out eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye by expanding and contracting.
164
Cornea
A transparent "window" into the eyeball.
165
Retina
Light sensitive membrane at the back of the eye.
166
vitreous humor
A transparent fluid that fills the vitreous chamber.
167
Lens
Transparent structure that enablkes the changing of focus.
168
Aquesous humor
Watery fluid in the anterioir chamber of the eye.
169
Pupil
Opening at the center of the iris.
170
Light is refracted _____ as it passes through the eye to the retina.
4X
171
Due to this refraction, light rays are focused onto a smkall spot in the retna, and the image is ______.
Inverted
172
Accommodation
The process by which the eye changes its focus by changing the shape of the lens.
173
Emmetropia
A condition where there is no refractive error, because the refractuive power iof the eye is perfectly matched to the length of the eyeball.
174
Refractive error
A common disorder in which the image of the world is not clearly focused on the retina.
175
Myopia
A common condition inwhich light entering the eye is focused in front of the retina and distant objects cannot be seen sharply.
176
Can be corrected with _____ (-) lenses, which diverge the light before it enters the eye.
Negative
177
Hyperopia
A comon condition in which light entering the eye is focused behind the retina, and near objects cannot be seen sharply.
178
Can be corrected with _____ (+) lenses, which converge the light before it enters the eye.
Positive
179
Retina
A light sensitive membrane in the back of the eye that contasins the photoreceptors and other cell types that transduce light into electrchemical signals.
180
Photoreceptors
Specializred cells in the retina that are biological sensors of light.
181
When light enters the eye it stimulates the bacjk moist layer of the retina made up of ______.
photoreceptors
182
Blind Spot
The location in the visual field where you cannot detect a visual stimulus because the corresponding location in the retina lacks photoreceptors.
183
Fovea
A small region of the retina that contains a very high density of photoreceptors.
184
Duplex Retina
Consisting of two parts: the rods and cones, which operate under different conditions
185
Rod
A type of photoreceptor cell that is more light sensitive than cone photoreceptors.
186
Cone
A type of photoreceptor cell that is responsible for daylight vision, fine visual acuity, and color vision.
187
_____ function best under condition of dim illumination (scotopic vision)
Rod
188
_____ require brighter illumination to perate efficiently (photopic vision)
Cone
189
_____ are important because they predominate the fovia.
Cones
190
Vision in dim light is mediated mainly by _____ in the retina's periphery.
rods
191
Photopigment
Unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light.
192
Each visual pigment molecule consists of a protein ( an _____) and a chromophor (______).
opsin; retinal
193
The structure of _____ determines which wavelengths of light the pigment molecule absorbs.
opsin
194
_____ is the part of the pigment molecule that determins its color by selectively absorbing specific wavelengths of light.
Retinal
195
When bound to Opsin Retinal is in its _____ (with a bent backbone)
cis-isomer
196
Absorbstion of a photon converts Retinal fromk its Cis-isomer (bent backbone) to the _____ (straight backbone).
All-Trans-isomer
197
phototransduction Cascade
A series of events that starts with photons activating the mkolecule retinal and ends witha change in the membrane potential of a photorecerptor cell.
198
The process of converting _____ into electrical signals.
light
199
Phototranduction cascade entail a series of signal _____ steps.
amplification
200
Graded Potential
A small deviation from the membrane resting potential that varies in size.
201
Change in ion flux creates a membrane _____.
Hyper-polarization
202
In the dark the rod photoreceptors have resting potentials near _____.
-40mV
203
Light stimulation reduces the depolarizing "_____".
dark current
204
This causes _____ glutamate-filled synaptic vesicles to be released.
fewer
205
_____ glutamate receptors.
Metabatropic
206
The metabotropic glutamte receptors (mGluRs) in rod bipolar cells cause _____, rather than depolarization, in response to glutamate.
hyper-polarization
207
The amount of glutamate present in the synapse between the photoreceptors and the bipolar cell is to ______ proportional to the number of photons absorbed by the photoreceptor.
inversely
208
Photoreceptors pass their information on to bipolar cells via _____ porentials.
graded
209
Dark adaptation
A set of processes that make photoreceprots more sensitive to light after they have been inj darkness (or low light conditions) for awhile
210
Rods can detect a _____ photon of light.
single
211
Imag8ine a neuron with a single short process leaving the soma that resembles most of the sensory neurons in the body.
Monopolar
212
Which of the following statements is FALSE regasrding a metabotropic receptor?
It hazxs a central pore through which ions can flow through
213
The sensorory systems becomes tuned to predictability in ways that highlight less predictyasble inputs is known as...
The efficient coding model.
214
Visual Sensitivity
Extreme responsiveness to light of a specific wavelength
215
Visual Acuity
A measure of the finest detail that can be resiolkved by the eyes
216
Photoreceptors
Specialized cells in the retina that are biological sensors of light; ie, the visual system's sensory transducers
217
Bipolar Cells
Intermediary retinal cell which synapse with either rods or cones and with horizontal cells, and then passes the signals onto the ganglion cells.
218
Ganglion Cells
Retinal cell that receives visual input fromk photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types; Bipolar cells and acacrine cells, and then transmits information to the brain.
219
Horizontal Cells
Specialized retinal cells that contact both photoreceptors and bipolar cells; play an important functional role in lateral inhibition
220
Amacrine Cells
Retinal crell that makes synaptic contact with bipolar cells ganglion cells and other amacrine cells.
221
Both cones and rods _____ their rate of glutamete release upon exposure to light.
decrease
222
Synapse on bipolar cells that are _____, rather than depolarized, in response to glutamate
hyper-polarized
223
Each cone synapses on two types of bipolar cells: What are the two?
Type 1: has metabotropic glutamate receptors (as in rods)
Type 2: has ionotropic receptors
224
On Bipolar Cells
Receives input from the rod or cone photoreceptors and is depolarized when light stimulus comes on.
225
Off Bipolar Cells
Receives input from the cone photoreceptors and is depolarized when a light stimulus turns off.
226
The rod pathway exhibits a much higher degree of _____.
Convergence
227
High degree of convergence allows the output of many rods to be summed as it is passed to a single retinal ganglion cell (high _____)
sensitivity
228
Special Receptive Field (RF)
The particular region of sensory space in which a stimulus will modify the fireing of a neuron (determines special resolution)
229
Each ganglion cell has a specific _____.
Receptive field
230
Excitastory Center
A central region of a neuron's receptive field where optimal stimulus generates an increased firing rate.
231
Inhibitory Surround
A region around the exitatorty center of a neuron's receptive field that inhibits excitation
232
lateral Inhibition
The process by which neuighboring neurons inhinbit each other
233
The antagonistic interactio between the center and surround (lateral inghibition) is mediated in part by the _____.
Horizontal cells
234
Depolarization of a horizontal cell causes it to _____ nearby photoreceptors (lateral inhibition)
hyper-polarizer
235
_____ Connect nearby photoreceptors to one another
Horizontal cells
236
Strongly excited photoreceptors in one location thend to _____ their less excited neighbors
inhibit
237
Ipsilateral
On or to the same side
238
Contralateral
Obot to the opposite side
239
Gray Matter
Neuon cell bodies dendrites, & synapses
240
White Matter
Axons, axon bundles=Fiber tracts, myelinated
241
Brain Nuclei
Are fundamental units of brain structure and function
242
The retina's projections to the superior colliculus and LGN and projections from LGN to the primary visual cortex are _____.
topographically organizred
243
The central region of the visual field (fovea) is _____ nin the primary visual cortex.
overrepresented
244
Neurons of the superior colliculus are _____.
Binocular
245
Neurons of the LGN are _____.
Monocular
246
Axons of the retinal ganglion cells synapse in the two _____ one in each cerebral hemisphere.
Lateral Geniculate Nuclei (LGNs)
247
LGN of primates is a _____ structure.
six-layered
248
Layers 3-6: Parvocellular layers, which receive input from the _____ of the retina.
P-ganglion cells
249
Layers 1 & 2: Magnocellular layers, which receive input from the _____ of the retina.
M-ganglion cell
250
Left LGN receives projections from the left side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world.
Right
251
Right LGN receives projections from the right side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world.
Left
252
Primary Visual Cortex (V1):
The area o the cerebral cortex of the brain that receives direct input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
253
The primary visual cortex is _____ (ie, made up of multiple layers)
Laminar
254
Neurons of the LGN project primarily to the _____ of the primary visual cortex (V1)
4th layer
255
LGN axons terminate in a(n) _____manner in V1.
eye specific
256
Layer 4 V1 neurons are _____.
Monocular
257
Many of the neurons in the other layers of V1 receive converging inputs from both eyes (_____).
Binocular
258
Cortical Magnification:
Distortion of the visual field map; the number of neurons in the V1 responsibl3e for processing the visual stimulus varies as a function of the location of the stimulus in the visual field.
259
The cortical representation of the _____ is greatly magnified compared with the cortical representation of our peripheral vision.
Fovea
260
Spacial Receptive Field
The particular region of sensory space in which a stimulus will modify the firing of a neuron.
261
262
Central region where bright spots (_____) or dark spots (_____) increase a neuron's firing rate.
On-center cells; Off-center cells
262
Both RGCs and LGN have _____ and _____ cells that respond to spots of light or dark (excitatory center), with an inhibitory surround.
On-center cells; Off-center cells
263
V1 cortical neurons respond only _____ to the spots or rights of light (or dark).
weakly
263
Most V1 neurons respond best to stimuli presented at a specific _____ and in a particular _____.
location; orientation
264
Orientation turning
The tendency of neurons in the V1 to respond optimally to orientations
265
V1 neurons respond best when the line or edge is at just the right _____.
orientation
266
Simple Cells
A type of neuron in the primary visual cortex (V1) that responds preferentially to lines or edges of a particular orientation in a specific location.
267
Simple cell receptive fields likely results from the _____ of multiple LGN neurons onto a single V1 simple cell.
Convergence
268
Complex Cells
A type of neuron in the primary visual cortex that responds preferentially to lines or edges of a particular orientation anywhere in its spacial receptive field.
269
Looking for an object activates the V1 simple cells and complex cells whose receptive fields and orientation preferences match a _____ of an objects edge.
segment
270
V1 neurons encode visual information from the standpoint of what is needed for _____
object identification
271
Extrastriata Cortex
The region of cortex bordering the primary visual cortex and containing multiple areas involved in visual processing
272
Boarder Ownership
When one object is in front of another, there will be a visual border formed between the object and the background
273
The 3rd visual cortex (V3) plays a role i the processing of coherent _____.
motion
274
Task segregation is the most _____ to have neurons that respond to stimuli regardless of where they are
efficient way
275
Infrotemple (IT) cortex
Part of the cerebral cortex in the lower portion of the temporal lobe, important for object recognition.
276
Small receptive fields and simple features of the visual cortex are combined with ever-greater-_____ as you move along the ventral stream.
complexity
277
Hippocampus
A complex brain structure in the temporal lobe, which plays has a major role in learning and memory
278
Plasticity
The quality of being easily shaped or molded
279
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
A set of cortical areas in the inferior temporal lob containing neurons that are activated by human faces
280
Agnosia
Object identification disorder- the inability to recognize objects, despite the ability to see them
281
Humans see a narrow range of the electromagnetic spectrum between wavelengths _____ nm
400-700
282
Color is not a physical property but a _____ property
psychophysical
283
Most of the light we see is _____ light
reflected
284
Longer wavelength light (>600nm) is _____ from the surface of the flower into the eyes of the observer.
reflected
285
Spectral Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a cell to different wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum
286
Wavelength of light for S-cones
425 nm
287
Wavelength of light for M-cones
530
288
Wavelength of light for L-cones
560
289
Principal of univarance
An infinite set of different wavelength intensity combinations can elicit exactly the same response from a single photoreceptor
290
It is the ratio of activity between (at least) _____ that allows for discrimination between color
two cone types
291
Trichromatic theory of color vision
The color of any light is defined in out visual system by the relationship of three numbers- the output of the three cone photoreceptors.
292
Activation of one cone type _____ the center and activation of a second cone type ______ the surround.
excites; inhibits
293
Cone-opponent cells
A cell type in the retina and LGN that effectively subtracts one type of cone input from another.
294
Red-Green opponent cells
Compares the activation of L- and M- cones in its spatial receptive field.
295
Blue-Yellow opponent cells
Compares the activity of S-cones to the combined activity of L- and M- canes in its spatial receptive field.
296
Double opponent cell
A class of color sensitive cell with one type of cone opponency in their receptive field center and another in the surround.
297
Color blindness
An in ability to discriminate some colors that the majority of people can discriminate; comes in many forms
298
Most color blind individuals have defective or missing _____ or _____.
M-cone; L-cone
299
Deuteranope
A person who sufferers from color blindness due to the absence of M-cones
300
Protanope
An individual who suffers from color blindness due to the absence of L-cones
301
Tritanope
An individual who suffers from color blindness due to the absence of S-cones
302
Light hits the rod photopigment _____, which converts retinal from its _____-isomner (with a _____ backbone) to the all _____-isomer (with a _____ backbone).
Rhodopsin; cis; bent; trans; strain
303
An activated rhodopsin molecule bumps into the G-protein _____.
Transducin
304
The G-protein becomes activated, causing one of its subunits to disassociate and activate the enzyme _____.
photodiesterase
305
The activated enzyme degrades the second messenger _____, which are floating around the cell, down to _____.
Cyclic GMP (cGMP); GMP
306
This light-induced decrease in the second messenger above causes _____-gated channels to _____.
cGMP; close
307
Fewer _____ & _____ ions can enter the cell
Na+ & Ca++ ions
308
This change in ion flux due to light results in a membrane _____ and release of _____ glutamate by the photoreceptor onto the bipolar cell.
Hyperpolarization; less
309
Chemical transmission 1&2: Action potential arrives at the axon terminal. _____ channels open and _____ enters the cell.
Voltage gated Ca++; Ca++
310
Chemical Transmission 3: Ca++ binds to the _____ protein on the vesicular membrane and moves the vesicle to the presynaptic membrane.
snare
311
Chemical Transmission 4: Synaptic vesicles release their contents by _____.
exocytosis
312
Chemical Transmission 5: _____ diffuse across the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters
313
Chemical Transmission 6: Neurotransmitters bind and open _____ ion channels.
Ligand-gated
314
Chemical Transmission 7: Opening of channels allows for ions to enter, resulting in depolarization or hyperpolarization in postsynaptic cell (_____ potentials).
graded
315
Chemical Transmission 8: Neurotransmitters levels in the synaptic cleft are reduced (_____ via enzymes, _____, or _____), terminating the signal.
Degradation; reuptake; diffusion
316
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 1 Olfactory
Sensory
317
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 2 Optic
Sensory
318
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 3 Ocular
Motor
319
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 4 Trochlear
Motor
320
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 5 Trigeminal
Both
321
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 6 Abducens
Motor
322
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 7 Facial Nerve
Both
323
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 8 Vestibulochlear
Sensory
324
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 9 Glossopharyngeal
Both
325
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 10 Vagus
Both
326
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 11 Spinal Accessory
Motor
327
Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 12 Hypoglossal
Motor
328
Mnemonic for the 12 cranial nerves
Ooh, ooh, ooh to touch and feel very good velvet. Such heaven!
329
mnemonic for the functions of the 12 cranial nerves
Some say marry money but my brother says big brains matter more
330
Cranial Nerve 1
Olfactory Nerve
331
Cranial Nerve 2
Optic Nerve
332
Cranial Nerve 3
Ocular Nerve
333
Cranial Nerve 4
Trochlear Nerve
334
Cranial Nerve 5
Trigeminal Nerve
335
Cranial Nerve 6
Abducens Nerve
336
Cranial Nerve 7
Facial Nerve
337
Cranial Nerve 8
Vestibulocochlear Nerve
338
Cranial Nerve 9
Glossopharyngeal Nerve
339
Cranial Nerve 10
Vagus Nerve
340
Cranial Nerve 11
Spinal Accessory Nerve
341
Cranial Nerve 12
Hypoglossal Nerve
342
Of the four major lobes of the neocortex, in which would you find the Somatosensory Cortex?
Parietal Lobe
343
What is the resting membrane potential?
-70mV
344
What are the three mechanisms used to maintain the resting membrane potential?
Sodium potassium pump 2 K+ in 3 Na+ out
Concentration Gradient outward flow of K+
Electrical Gradient inward flow of K+
345
If you where to suddenly be presented with an orange light (600nm) which cone photoreceptor(s) (if any) would specifically be activated? Which would be more activated?
Cones M and L. L would be more strongly activated than M.
346
I am a region of the brain, specifically found in the inferior temporal lobe, that assists with identifying complex visual stimuli. In particular, I house special neurons called face selective cells that respond more strongly to faces than other visual stimuli
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
347
I receive direct input from the cone photoreceptors and express ionotropic glutamate receptors. When light is turned off, I become depolarized.
Off Bipolar Cells
348
I am a neuron subtype that has many processes emerging from the soma, with one axon and multiple dendrites. I am the most common neuron type in the brain and spinal cord.
Multipolar Neuron
349
I'm a part of the horizontal or lateral pathway through the retina that synapses with both photoreceptors and bipolar cells. In particular, I play an important functional role in lateral inhibition within the retina.
Horizontal cell
350
I am a small gap in the myelin sheath coating along axons, that is often pack with voltage gated sodium and potassium channels. I don't want to brag, but I'm pretty important... Without me, the action potential would die out and be unable to propagate down the axon.
Node of Ranvier
351
I'm a small region of the retinal that contains a very high density of cone photoreceptors. Whenever you look at an object, you're placing the retinal image of that object on me.
Fovea
352
An activated rhodopsin molecule bumps into the G-protein _____ which dissociates and activates the enzyme _____. This enzyme degrades _____ down to _____, which causes ______-gated channels to close , meaning fewer Na+ and Ca+ ions can enter the cell. This change in ion flux causes a membrane _____.
Transducin; phosphodiesterase; cGMP; GMP; cGMP; hyperpolarization
353
T/F The retina can be divided into left and right halve; the right LGN receives input from the left side of the retina in both eyes while the left LGN receives input from the right.
F
354
T/F Each layer of the LGN receives input from one or the other eye (monocular)
T
355
T/F The right LGN processes information from the left visual field and the left LGN processes information from the right visual field.
T
356
Specialized cells in the retina that are biological sensors of light are called
photoreceptors
357
Compare and contrast an accommodated vs an unaccommodated eye, include key structures involved and which condition allows for focus on distant vs. close objects.
Unaccommodated: When the ciliary muscle is relaxed, the fibers are stretched, and the lens is relatively flat. An unaccommodated eye is focused on distant objects.
Accommodated: When the ciliary muscles are contracted, the fibers are relaxed, and the lens is bulged. An accommodated eye is focused on nearby objects.
358
Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Has a central pore, through which ions can flow.
Ionotropic
359
Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Indirectly linked to ion channels
Metabotropic
359
Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Activated when a neurotransmitter binds
Both
360
Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Effects occur quickly but last only a short amount of time
Ionotropic
361
In the presence of light, photoreceptors ______ their glutamate release, which _____ the bipolar cells, resulting in a(n) _____ of glutamate from the bipolar cells.
decrease; depolarizes; increase
361
Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Can be activated by a change in voltage of the cell
Neither
362
Convergence (high/low) Receptive Field (small/large) Visual Sensitivity (high/low) Visual Acuity (high/low): Rods
High; Large; High; Low
363
Convergence (high/low) Receptive Field (small/large) Visual Sensitivity (high/low) Visual Acuity (high/low): Cones
Low; small; low; high
364
Name the specific cells and their location in the nervous system that allow you to detect the edge between two different colors that is defined by color contrast.
double opponent cells in the primary visual cortex V1
365
Name the brains primary excitatory neurotransmitter
Glutamate
366
Name the brains primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
Gaba
367
How may layers are in the LGN vs the Primary visual cortex V1
Both have 6 layers
368
Dr. Yopak is sitting on a bench in the park reading her book about great white brains. She suddenly hears a loud noise in the distance and looks up from her book to seer. What happens to her ciliary muscles and lens to adjust to focus on what she heard?
Her ciliary muscles will relax and her lens will flatten allowing her to focus at a distance.
369
When an individual can see close up but not far away they are experiencing near sightedness also called...
Myopia- light entering the eye is focused on the front of the retina
370
Which of the following statements is true regarding the effect of light stimulation on photoreceptors?
A) Light depolarizes rod photoreceptors increasing the rate of glutamate release
B) Light hyperpolarizes rod photoreceptors, decreasing the rate of glutamate release.
C) Light depolarizes rod photoreceptors, decreasing the rate of glutamate release.
D) Light hyperpolarizes rod photoreceptors increasing the rate of glutamate release.
B
371
The Term that describes the process of neuronal activity that has been proven to occur when you recognize a familiar face such as your grandmother is _____.
Population Coding
372
The left LGN receives projections from the _____ side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world while the right LGN receives projections from the _____ side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world.
Left; Right; Right; Left
373
The _____ conducts action potentials away from the cell body
Axon
374
Which of the following is NOT true about myelination?
A) Myelin is bulky
B) Myelin saves metabolic energy
C) Myelin has a good biological design
D) Myelin is entirely cost free.
D
375
Who is responsible for formulating the doctrine of specific nerve endings?
Johannes Muller
376
Which of the following wavelengths would have the highest concentration of M-cones?
A) 600nm
B) 530nm
C) 500nm
D) 425nm
B
377
In response to glutamate, the metabotropic glutamate receptors in _____ bipolar cells cause ______.
Rod; Hyperpolarization
378
Which of the following best describes the phototransduction cascade in rod cells of the human retina?
A) Light exposure increases the concentration of cyclic GMP (cGMP) in the rod cells, leading to the opening of sodium channels.
B) In response to light, rod cells release neurotransmitters that directly stimulate the optic nerve.
C) Light exposure causes a conformational change in rhobopsin, leading to the activation of transducin and decreases in cGMP levels.
D) Light exposure triggers an influx in Ca ions which results in the hyperpolarization of the rod cell membrane.
C
379
What contributes to the resting membrane of -70mV?
The concentration gradient pushing K+ out of the cell and the electrical gradient trying to keep K+ in the cell.
380
While visiting her eye doctor, Emily indicates that she has difficulty seeing distant objects because they appear blurry. According to these symptoms what diagnosis is Emily most likely to receive.
Myopia
381
What is a sensory projection nuclei in the thalamus that plays a key role in visual processing?
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
382
Say you are standing in a large empty field and to your left is a big tree. Which half of each retina would you be using to visualize the tree?
Right
383
While saltatory conduction is occurring on a myelinated axon an action potential "Jumps across the _____.
Myelin Sheath
384
In response to glutamate, synapses on bipolar cells are:
Hyperpolarized
385
Cones function best in what setting
Bright light
386
You are looking at a highly specialized neuron that is part of the human's olfactory system. What is the likely anatomy of the neuron?
Bipolar
387
A lion is focusing on a gazelle in the distance, this means its eyes are _____
Unaccommodated
388
What nerves are responsible for eye movement?
Ocular motor nerve, Trochlear nerve, abducent nerve
389
What is the most common neuron type?
Multipolar
390
What type of photoreceptor is responsible for vision in dim light?
Rods
391
What area of the brain exhibits minimal response to circular patters such as spots or rings, but contains neurons (simple cells) that show a preferential response to linear features, lust as lines or edges
Primary visual cortex V1
392
Why are action potentials propagation uni-directional
There is a refractory period that occurs, which hyperpolarizes the membrane.
393
The V1 cortical neuron responds in what way to spots?
weakly
394
How many times is light refracted as it passes through the human eye to the retina?
4
395
what distinguishes ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?
Ionotropic receptors open when activated by a specific neuron.
396
What do sensory neurons focus on to pass on the most informative information?
Spatial and temporal variations
397
Ca++ binds to the ____ protein on the vesicular membrane and moves the vesicle to the presynaptic membrane.
Receptor
398
A molecule that produces a signal by binding to a site on a target protein is...
Ligand
399
Hubel and Wiesel performed experiments on ____ and discovered that V1 neurons respond better to _____ than _____.
Cats; lines; spots
400
Which of the following discovered the law that states the discrimination threshold is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus?
Ernest Weber
401
Which cranial nerve innervates the superior oblique muscle of the eyeball?
Trochlear nerve, nIV
402
Your Grandmother just bought a new iPhone and is super excited to Facetime you. How would you describe to her of why you're able to recognize her biologically?
Population Coding Scheme where this Complex Stimuli is a combination of neurons firing collectively that encode this stimuli
403
Who proposed the theory of psychophysics?
Gustave Fechner
404
What is the name of the muscle attached to the lens that performs accommodation?
Ciliary
405
Which anatomical feature gives the eye color?
Iris
406
In the visual hierarchy, which pathway is the MTA located on?
Dorsal pathway
407
Which cells aid in allowing rods to connect to retinal ganglion cells?
Amacrine cells
408
Which cranial nerve is responsible specifically for movement of the superior oblique?
Trochlear Nerve
409
