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BIO 442 Sensory Biology > Exam 1 prep > Flashcards

Exam 1 prep Flashcards

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1
Q

A pattern of light striking the eye and making photo-receptors activate is _____, whereas recognizing the pattern of light as a cat is _____.

A

Sensation; perception

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2
Q

Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception might measure the lowest volume that you can hear at different frequencies?

A

Threshold

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3
Q

Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception studies how people make difficult perceptual decisions?

A

Signal detection theory

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4
Q

Which conceptual approach to understanding sensation and perception might measure your brain activity while taking a hearing test?

A

Neuroimaging

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5
Q

Which psycho-physical law focuses on magnitude estimations?

A

Stevens’s power law

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6
Q

If the experimenter adjusts the stimulus to change it from when you could perceive it until you just barely can’t perceive it, they are using…

A

The method of limits.

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7
Q

If you go to the hospital and they ask you to rate your current level of pain from 1 to 100, they are asking you to perform…

A

magnitude estimation.

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8
Q

If you are asked to compare the smoothness of silk to the sweetness of an apple, that is…

A

cross-modality matching.

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9
Q

Which concept refers to the observer’s ability to detect a signal amidst noise?

A

Sensitivity.

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10
Q

Nervous System

A

A complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.

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11
Q

Sensory Nervous System

A

Responsible for processing sensory info.

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12
Q

Everything we _____ happens through taste, hearing, sight, smell, and movement

A

Experience

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13
Q

Sensation

A

The ability to detect stimulus.

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14
Q

Perception

A

The act of giving meaning to a detected sensation.

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15
Q

Mental Life

A

The functional activity related to sensation, reasoning and voluntary action.

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16
Q

The study of our sensations and perceptions was a mix of experimental science and _____.

A

Philosophy

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17
Q

It should be possible to describe the relationship between _____ (mind) and _____ (matter) using mathematics.

A

Sensation; Energy

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17
Q

Psychophysics

A

The science of defining quantitative relationships between physical and psychological (subjective) events.

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18
Q

Psycho-physicists usually employ experimental stimuli that can be objectively _____.

A

Measured

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19
Q

Absolute Threshold

A

The point of intensity at which the participant can just detect the presence of a stimulus.

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20
Q

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

A

The difference required for detecting a change.

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21
Q

Discrimination Threshold

A

The detectable presence of a difference between two stimuli.

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22
Q

The ability to detect the difference depended on the weight of the _____.

A

Standard

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23
Q

The smallest detectable difference that could be detected was always close to _____ of the standard.

A

1/40th

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24
Q

Webber’s Law

A

States the discrimination threshold is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus.

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25
Q

Scaling

A

measuring private experience.

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26
Q

Evolution

A

The process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms.

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27
Q

The Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies

A

The nature of a sensation depends on which sensory fibers are stimulated, not on how the fibers are stimulated.

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28
Q

We are only aware of the activity our _____ and not the world.

A

nerves

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29
Q

Innervate

A

To supply with nerves

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30
Q

Afferent

A

Projections that arrive at a particular brain region.

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31
Q

Efferent

A

Projections that exit a particular brain region.

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32
Q

Cranial Nerves

A

Twelve pairs of nerves (one for each side of the body) that originate in the brain stem and reach sense organs and muscles through openings in the skull.

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33
Q

Cranial nerves can carry exclusively _____ information, exclusively _____ information, or _____.

A

sensory; motor; both

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34
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

Receives primary input from the olfactory receptors neurons in the olfactory epithelium.

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35
Q

Olfactory cortex

A

Primary cortical receiving area for smell.

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36
Q

Gustatory cortex

A

Primary cortical receiving area for taste (gustation).

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37
Q

Motor cortex

A

Engaged in balance, touch, and some auditory processing.

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38
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

Primary cortical receiving area for touch sensations (mechanoreception).

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39
Q

Primary (1st degree) Visual Cortex

A

Primary cortical area for visual processing from the retina.

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40
Q

Auditory cortex

A

The primary cortical receiving area for hearing (audition).

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41
Q

Polysensory

A

The blending of multiple sensory systems

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42
Q

Neuron

A

An electrical exitahble cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

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43
Q

Glia Cell

A

Non-neural cells in the brain.

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44
Q

Synapse

A

The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass.

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45
Q

Action Potential

A

An all-or-none electrochemical signal generated by neurons in response to above-threshold stimulation.

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46
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Any substnace responsible for sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons.

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47
Q

Ion Channel

A

A pore-forming membrane protein that allow ions to pass through the channel pore.

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47
Q

Voltage Gated Ion Chanel

A

Ion channels that change their structurte in response to voltage changes.

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47
Q

Ligand Gated Ion Chanel

A

Ion channels that open or close depending on binding of a specific type of molecule (a ligand) to the channel.

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48
Q

Information collected by dendrites is integrated inthe axon hillock which generates _____.

A

Action potentials

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49
Q

Axon terminals _____ with a target cell, often releaseing ______.

A

synapse; neurotransmitter

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50
Q

_____ receive information from other neurons.

A

Dendrites

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51
Q

The _____ conducts action potential away from the cell body.

A

axon

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52
Q

If you had a stroke that damaged your parietal lobe, which sense would be most likely to be impaired?

A

Touch

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53
Q

If you accidentally hit your head you might see starts, even if no actual light flashes. This fact is predicted by:

A

The doctrine of specific nerve energies.

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54
Q

Which statement is TRUE about the glossopharyngeal nerve?

A

It innervates the posterior tongue, tonsils, pharynx and pharyngeal muscles.

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55
Q

Odors activating sensory neurons in your nose is _____; interpreting a neural response as the sent of apple pie is ____.

A

sensation; perception

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56
Q

The science of defining quantitative relationships between physical and subjective events is known as…

A

psychophysics

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57
Q

This German philosopher was bedridden and described the relationship between sensation(mind) and energy (matter) using math.

A

Gustave Fechner

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58
Q

Neurons communicate through a web of _____.

A

Axons

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59
Q

Neighboring neurons of one brain region often connect to neighboring neurons in another region. This is called…

A

Topographic projections

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60
Q

Divergence

A

Axons nay split into two or more branches that project to different targets.

Allows for info from one neuron to be transmitted to several other neurons, which can then use the information differently

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61
Q

Convergence

A

Neurons may receive input from two or more other neurons.

Allows for information from different neurons to be integrated.

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62
Q

Neurons are separate _____ with tiny gaps between them.

A

cells

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63
Q

Ahe3rrington proposed the term “_____” meaning to clasp to describe the structure, 1897

A

synapse

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64
Q

Neuron doctrine

A

The idea that each neuron is a distinct cell (Not cont8inuous with other neurons).

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65
Q

Voltage Gated Ion Channel

A

Ion channels that change third structure in response to voltage changes.

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66
Q

“Leak” Channels

A

a non-gated channel that generally stays 9pen and allows ions to “leak” out of a neuron at rest.

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67
Q

Intracellular recording of a neuron at rest…

A

-70mV

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68
Q

Resting Potential

A

The voltage difference between the inside and outside of the neuron.

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69
Q

Action Potential

A

A brief reversal of polarity of the membrane potential.

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70
Q

Ion

A

an atom or molecule with a net positive or negative electrical charge.

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71
Q

High concentration of _____ ions in vs out (20:1)

A

Potassium

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72
Q

Low concentration of _____ ions in vs out. (9:1)

A

Sodium

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73
Q

Transporting Ions requires _____.

A

ATP

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74
Q

Selective Permeability

A

The ability to allow some ions or small molecules to pass into or out of the cell regularly

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75
Q

Concentration Gradient

A

A difference in concentration of ions across two sides of a cell membrane.

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76
Q

Electrical Potential Gradient

A

A difference in electrical potential between the inside of a cell and its surrounding extracellular space

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77
Q

K+ ions will start to diffuse _____ along their concentration gradient

A

Out

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78
Q

The net movement of potassium through all of these mechanisms that sets a neuron’s _____ potential a -70 mV.

A

resting membrane

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79
Q

At the beginning of an action potential, the axonal membrane suddenly becomes highly permeable to _____ ions

A

Na+

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80
Q

Resting Phase:

A

Voltage gated Na+ channels open and allow Na+ ions to flow.

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81
Q

Depolarization:

A

Negative internal charge of the cell becomes briefly positive

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82
Q

Graded Potential

A

The strength of the current pulses can vary leading to different degrees of depolarization with different outcomes.

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83
Q

Repolarization

A

The process that brings the membrane potential back towards its resting value after a strong depolarization

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84
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Chang in the cell’s membrane potential to below the resting potential

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85
Q

Action potentials are initiated in the _____.

A

Axon hillock

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86
Q

Action potentials travel along axons because the massive influx of _____ that one location of the axonal membrane tends to trigger Na+ influx at adjacent locations

A

Na+ ions

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87
Q

Refractory period

A

A period following an action potential when the neuron cannot generate another action potential.

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88
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

A multilayered wrapper of myelin-rich glial cell membranes around an axon.

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89
Q

Node of Ranvier

A

A small gap in the myelin sheath usually occurring at regular intervals along the axon.

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90
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

Action potentials can “jump” from one node of Ranvier to another further down the axon.

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91
Q

Myelination: The pros

A

Decrease in signal transmission time
Saves metabolic energy
Good biological design

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92
Q

Myelination: The cons

A

Myelin isn’t entirely cost free
Myelin is bulky

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93
Q

Synapse

A

The junction between the terminal of a neuron and either another neuron or a muscle or gland cell, over which nerve impulses pass.

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94
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Any substance responsible for sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons

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95
Q

pre-synaptic

A

In a synaps, of or pertaining to the neuron that sencds the signal.

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96
Q

Postsynaptic

A

In a synapse, of or pertaining to the neuron that bears receptors to receive the signal.

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97
Q

Voltage-gated ion channels

A

Ion channels that change their structure in response to voltage changes.

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98
Q

Ligand-gated ion channels

A

Ion channels that open or close depending on binding of a specific type of molecule (a ligand) to the channel.

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99
Q

Synaptic-Transmission

A

Information transfer at a synapes

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100
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

A chemical substance used in neural communication at chemical synaps.

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101
Q

Can have an _____ or _____ effect on the postsynaptic neuron.

A

excitatory; inhibitory

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102
Q

synapse

A

A “gap” where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

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103
Q

Converts an electrical signal (_____) into a chemical one (_____).

A

Action potential; neurotransmitter

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104
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

The space between neurons across which a nerve inpulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter.

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105
Q

Synaptic vesicle

A

Membranous vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules, located inside the presynaptic component of a chemical synapse.

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106
Q

Glutamate (_____ neurotransmitter)

A

excitatory

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107
Q

Voltage-gated calcium Ca2+ channels

A

A Ca2+ channel that greatly increases its probability of being open when the cell is depolarized above a threshold value.

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108
Q

Exocytosis

A

A form of active transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell.

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109
Q

Membranes are drawn together via protein complexes called _____.

A

snares

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110
Q

Relseases _____ into the synaptic cleft.

A

neurotransmitters

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111
Q

Binding of neurotransmitter opens ligand-gated ion channels resulting in a _____.

A

graded potential

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112
Q

Reduction of neurotransmitter levels, terminating the signal : 1 of 3 ways

A

Re-uptake by pre-synaptic neuron

Enzymatic degradation

Diffusion

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113
Q

Binding of neurotransmitter opens ligand-gated ion channels, resulting in a _____.

A

graded potential

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114
Q

Selective permeability

A

The ability of a membrane to allow some ions or small molecules to pass into or out of the cell regularly, while restricting the passage of others.

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115
Q

Graded-potential

A

A smaLL DEVIATION FROM THE MEMBRANE RESTING POTENTIAL THAT VARIES IN SIZE

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116
Q

EPSP

A

A postsynaptic potential that makes the postynaptic neuron MORE likely to fire an action potential.

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117
Q

IPSP

A

A postynaptic potenial that makes the postsynaptic neuron LESS likely to fire an actio potential.

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118
Q

Negative internal change of the cell becomes briefly _____.

A

positive

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119
Q

Apmlitude of EPSP is directly proportional to the number of _____ reloeased.

A

synaptic vesicles

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120
Q

Quantal

A

Varying in discrete steps rather than continuously

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121
Q

EPSP caused by synapses close to the cell body (i.e. _____ synapses) tend to generate more depolarization at the axon hillock than do synapses far out on the dendritic tree (_____ synapses)

A

Proximal; distal

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122
Q

Spacial summation

A

Synaptic potentials generated in different parts of a neuron will be additive in their overall effect.

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123
Q

temporal summation

A

Synaptic potentials that overlap in time will be additive in their overall effect.

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124
Q

The membrane potential of the axon hillock at any given moment represents the sum of _____ that have arrived at the axon hillock within the same 10-30 m mins.

A

all of the ESPSs

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125
Q

Change in the cell’s membrane potential that makes it more _____.

A

negative

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126
Q

Hyperpolarization (_____) inhibits action potentials.

A

IPSP

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127
Q

Molecules of curate block the _____, preventing ACh from binding

A

receptors

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128
Q

Sensory (Afferent) neurons

A

Respond to sensory stimuli

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129
Q

Motor (efferent) neurons

A

Deliver output to muscles or glands

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130
Q

Neurite

A

Any projection from the cell body of a neuron

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131
Q

Have a _____ short process leaving the cell body

A

single

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132
Q

dendretic spine

A

Small, mushroom-shaped protrusion on dendrites

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133
Q

Axons are generally not thinner _____ in diameter.

A

0.1um

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134
Q

Neuron cell bodies are _____ or larger.

A

4-5 um

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135
Q

Glutamate: Major _____ neurotransmitter in the brain

A

excitatory

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136
Q

Gaba: Major _____ neurotransmitter in the brain.

A

inhibitory

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137
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

Resembles ion channels, with a central pore through which ions can flow.

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138
Q

Effect may be Excitation or Inhibitory; occur _____, lasts only a _____ time.

A

quickly; short

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139
Q

When _____ bonds to the extracellular domain, the NMDA receptor changes shape to widen its central pore through which _____ may flow.

A

glutasmate; ions

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140
Q

Metabotropic Receptors

A

No central pore, but open and close nearby channels via intracellular signaling cascades.

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141
Q

Takes _____ to develop, lasts _____.

A

Longer; a long time

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142
Q

Different aspects of an individual neuron’s firing (if it fires, how often it fires) can _____ and transmit information.

A

encode

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143
Q

Different auditory neurons fire in response to different sound _____.

A

frequencies

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144
Q

Sensory input must be _____.

A

filtered

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145
Q

Sparse coding

A

The idea that neurons filter out redundant information.

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146
Q

Efficient coding modles

A

Assumes that sensory systems become turned to predictability in ways that highlight less predictable inputs.

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147
Q

Neurons that respond selectively to features of the stimulus that occur most _____ in natural stimuli.

A

frequent

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148
Q

Matching neural stimulus preference to natural stimulus features saves _____ and _____.

A

energy; space

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149
Q

Complex features and objects can be encoded in the _____ of firing of a subset of neurons.

A

pattern

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150
Q

Population coding

A

Sensory information is represented in the activity of many different neurons.

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151
Q

Principle 1: Information sensors provide is _____.

A

incomplete and veriable

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152
Q

Sensors are “_____” to a specific range of stimuli.

A

tuned

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153
Q

Their sensitivity to these stimuli is typically _____.

A

adjustable

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154
Q

Sensing is _____ expensive: It is adaptive to possess the sensors most important for a species.

A

metabolically

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155
Q

Background adaptation

A

The idea that sensors gradually stop responding to steady persistent stimuli

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156
Q

Tonotopic Map

A

A sounds frequency (pitch is represented in a map like fashion across a brain region, such that adjacent neurons are tuned to similar sound frequencies.

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157
Q

This topography _____ connection lengths between neurons encoding similar stimuli.

A

minimizes

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158
Q

Sensory Transduction

A

The process by which an external stimulus (e.g. a sound) is converted into a change in the electrical activity of sensory neurons or other sensory cells.

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159
Q

Photo transduction

A

The process converting light energy (photons)n is converted into a change in the electrical activity of the photoreceptors.

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160
Q

Photon

A

A particle representing a quantum of light.

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161
Q

Reflected

A

Energy that is redirected whin it strikes a surface, usually back to its point of origin.

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162
Q

Refracted

A

Energy that is altered as it passes into another medium.

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163
Q

Iris

A

Colored part of out eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye by expanding and contracting.

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164
Q

Cornea

A

A transparent “window” into the eyeball.

165
Q

Retina

A

Light sensitive membrane at the back of the eye.

166
Q

vitreous humor

A

A transparent fluid that fills the vitreous chamber.

167
Q

Lens

A

Transparent structure that enablkes the changing of focus.

168
Q

Aquesous humor

A

Watery fluid in the anterioir chamber of the eye.

169
Q

Pupil

A

Opening at the center of the iris.

170
Q

Light is refracted _____ as it passes through the eye to the retina.

A

4X

171
Q

Due to this refraction, light rays are focused onto a smkall spot in the retna, and the image is ______.

A

Inverted

172
Q

Accommodation

A

The process by which the eye changes its focus by changing the shape of the lens.

173
Q

Emmetropia

A

A condition where there is no refractive error, because the refractuive power iof the eye is perfectly matched to the length of the eyeball.

174
Q

Refractive error

A

A common disorder in which the image of the world is not clearly focused on the retina.

175
Q

Myopia

A

A common condition inwhich light entering the eye is focused in front of the retina and distant objects cannot be seen sharply.

176
Q

Can be corrected with _____ (-) lenses, which diverge the light before it enters the eye.

A

Negative

177
Q

Hyperopia

A

A comon condition in which light entering the eye is focused behind the retina, and near objects cannot be seen sharply.

178
Q

Can be corrected with _____ (+) lenses, which converge the light before it enters the eye.

A

Positive

179
Q

Retina

A

A light sensitive membrane in the back of the eye that contasins the photoreceptors and other cell types that transduce light into electrchemical signals.

180
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Specializred cells in the retina that are biological sensors of light.

181
Q

When light enters the eye it stimulates the bacjk moist layer of the retina made up of ______.

A

photoreceptors

182
Q

Blind Spot

A

The location in the visual field where you cannot detect a visual stimulus because the corresponding location in the retina lacks photoreceptors.

183
Q

Fovea

A

A small region of the retina that contains a very high density of photoreceptors.

184
Q

Duplex Retina

A

Consisting of two parts: the rods and cones, which operate under different conditions

185
Q

Rod

A

A type of photoreceptor cell that is more light sensitive than cone photoreceptors.

186
Q

Cone

A

A type of photoreceptor cell that is responsible for daylight vision, fine visual acuity, and color vision.

187
Q

_____ function best under condition of dim illumination (scotopic vision)

A

Rod

188
Q

_____ require brighter illumination to perate efficiently (photopic vision)

A

Cone

189
Q

_____ are important because they predominate the fovia.

A

Cones

190
Q

Vision in dim light is mediated mainly by _____ in the retina’s periphery.

A

rods

191
Q

Photopigment

A

Unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light.

192
Q

Each visual pigment molecule consists of a protein ( an _____) and a chromophor (______).

A

opsin; retinal

193
Q

The structure of _____ determines which wavelengths of light the pigment molecule absorbs.

A

opsin

194
Q

_____ is the part of the pigment molecule that determins its color by selectively absorbing specific wavelengths of light.

A

Retinal

195
Q

When bound to Opsin Retinal is in its _____ (with a bent backbone)

A

cis-isomer

196
Q

Absorbstion of a photon converts Retinal fromk its Cis-isomer (bent backbone) to the _____ (straight backbone).

A

All-Trans-isomer

197
Q

phototransduction Cascade

A

A series of events that starts with photons activating the mkolecule retinal and ends witha change in the membrane potential of a photorecerptor cell.

198
Q

The process of converting _____ into electrical signals.

A

light

199
Q

Phototranduction cascade entail a series of signal _____ steps.

A

amplification

200
Q

Graded Potential

A

A small deviation from the membrane resting potential that varies in size.

201
Q

Change in ion flux creates a membrane _____.

A

Hyper-polarization

202
Q

In the dark the rod photoreceptors have resting potentials near _____.

A

-40mV

203
Q

Light stimulation reduces the depolarizing “_____”.

A

dark current

204
Q

This causes _____ glutamate-filled synaptic vesicles to be released.

A

fewer

205
Q

_____ glutamate receptors.

A

Metabatropic

206
Q

The metabotropic glutamte receptors (mGluRs) in rod bipolar cells cause _____, rather than depolarization, in response to glutamate.

A

hyper-polarization

207
Q

The amount of glutamate present in the synapse between the photoreceptors and the bipolar cell is to ______ proportional to the number of photons absorbed by the photoreceptor.

A

inversely

208
Q

Photoreceptors pass their information on to bipolar cells via _____ porentials.

A

graded

209
Q

Dark adaptation

A

A set of processes that make photoreceprots more sensitive to light after they have been inj darkness (or low light conditions) for awhile

210
Q

Rods can detect a _____ photon of light.

A

single

211
Q

Imag8ine a neuron with a single short process leaving the soma that resembles most of the sensory neurons in the body.

A

Monopolar

212
Q

Which of the following statements is FALSE regasrding a metabotropic receptor?

A

It hazxs a central pore through which ions can flow through

213
Q

The sensorory systems becomes tuned to predictability in ways that highlight less predictyasble inputs is known as…

A

The efficient coding model.

214
Q

Visual Sensitivity

A

Extreme responsiveness to light of a specific wavelength

215
Q

Visual Acuity

A

A measure of the finest detail that can be resiolkved by the eyes

216
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Specialized cells in the retina that are biological sensors of light; ie, the visual system’s sensory transducers

217
Q

Bipolar Cells

A

Intermediary retinal cell which synapse with either rods or cones and with horizontal cells, and then passes the signals onto the ganglion cells.

218
Q

Ganglion Cells

A

Retinal cell that receives visual input fromk photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types; Bipolar cells and acacrine cells, and then transmits information to the brain.

219
Q

Horizontal Cells

A

Specialized retinal cells that contact both photoreceptors and bipolar cells; play an important functional role in lateral inhibition

220
Q

Amacrine Cells

A

Retinal crell that makes synaptic contact with bipolar cells ganglion cells and other amacrine cells.

221
Q

Both cones and rods _____ their rate of glutamete release upon exposure to light.

A

decrease

222
Q

Synapse on bipolar cells that are _____, rather than depolarized, in response to glutamate

A

hyper-polarized

223
Q

Each cone synapses on two types of bipolar cells: What are the two?

A

Type 1: has metabotropic glutamate receptors (as in rods)
Type 2: has ionotropic receptors

224
Q

On Bipolar Cells

A

Receives input from the rod or cone photoreceptors and is depolarized when light stimulus comes on.

225
Q

Off Bipolar Cells

A

Receives input from the cone photoreceptors and is depolarized when a light stimulus turns off.

226
Q

The rod pathway exhibits a much higher degree of _____.

A

Convergence

227
Q

High degree of convergence allows the output of many rods to be summed as it is passed to a single retinal ganglion cell (high _____)

A

sensitivity

228
Q

Special Receptive Field (RF)

A

The particular region of sensory space in which a stimulus will modify the fireing of a neuron (determines special resolution)

229
Q

Each ganglion cell has a specific _____.

A

Receptive field

230
Q

Excitastory Center

A

A central region of a neuron’s receptive field where optimal stimulus generates an increased firing rate.

231
Q

Inhibitory Surround

A

A region around the exitatorty center of a neuron’s receptive field that inhibits excitation

232
Q

lateral Inhibition

A

The process by which neuighboring neurons inhinbit each other

233
Q

The antagonistic interactio between the center and surround (lateral inghibition) is mediated in part by the _____.

A

Horizontal cells

234
Q

Depolarization of a horizontal cell causes it to _____ nearby photoreceptors (lateral inhibition)

A

hyper-polarizer

235
Q

_____ Connect nearby photoreceptors to one another

A

Horizontal cells

236
Q

Strongly excited photoreceptors in one location thend to _____ their less excited neighbors

A

inhibit

237
Q

Ipsilateral

A

On or to the same side

238
Q

Contralateral

A

Obot to the opposite side

239
Q

Gray Matter

A

Neuon cell bodies dendrites, & synapses

240
Q

White Matter

A

Axons, axon bundles=Fiber tracts, myelinated

241
Q

Brain Nuclei

A

Are fundamental units of brain structure and function

242
Q

The retina’s projections to the superior colliculus and LGN and projections from LGN to the primary visual cortex are _____.

A

topographically organizred

243
Q

The central region of the visual field (fovea) is _____ nin the primary visual cortex.

A

overrepresented

244
Q

Neurons of the superior colliculus are _____.

A

Binocular

245
Q

Neurons of the LGN are _____.

A

Monocular

246
Q

Axons of the retinal ganglion cells synapse in the two _____ one in each cerebral hemisphere.

A

Lateral Geniculate Nuclei (LGNs)

247
Q

LGN of primates is a _____ structure.

A

six-layered

248
Q

Layers 3-6: Parvocellular layers, which receive input from the _____ of the retina.

A

P-ganglion cells

249
Q

Layers 1 & 2: Magnocellular layers, which receive input from the _____ of the retina.

A

M-ganglion cell

250
Q

Left LGN receives projections from the left side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world.

A

Right

251
Q

Right LGN receives projections from the right side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world.

A

Left

252
Q

Primary Visual Cortex (V1):

A

The area o the cerebral cortex of the brain that receives direct input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

253
Q

The primary visual cortex is _____ (ie, made up of multiple layers)

A

Laminar

254
Q

Neurons of the LGN project primarily to the _____ of the primary visual cortex (V1)

A

4th layer

255
Q

LGN axons terminate in a(n) _____manner in V1.

A

eye specific

256
Q

Layer 4 V1 neurons are _____.

A

Monocular

257
Q

Many of the neurons in the other layers of V1 receive converging inputs from both eyes (_____).

A

Binocular

258
Q

Cortical Magnification:

A

Distortion of the visual field map; the number of neurons in the V1 responsibl3e for processing the visual stimulus varies as a function of the location of the stimulus in the visual field.

259
Q

The cortical representation of the _____ is greatly magnified compared with the cortical representation of our peripheral vision.

A

Fovea

260
Q

Spacial Receptive Field

A

The particular region of sensory space in which a stimulus will modify the firing of a neuron.

261
Q
A
262
Q

Central region where bright spots (_____) or dark spots (_____) increase a neuron’s firing rate.

A

On-center cells; Off-center cells

262
Q

Both RGCs and LGN have _____ and _____ cells that respond to spots of light or dark (excitatory center), with an inhibitory surround.

A

On-center cells; Off-center cells

263
Q

V1 cortical neurons respond only _____ to the spots or rights of light (or dark).

A

weakly

263
Q

Most V1 neurons respond best to stimuli presented at a specific _____ and in a particular _____.

A

location; orientation

264
Q

Orientation turning

A

The tendency of neurons in the V1 to respond optimally to orientations

265
Q

V1 neurons respond best when the line or edge is at just the right _____.

A

orientation

266
Q

Simple Cells

A

A type of neuron in the primary visual cortex (V1) that responds preferentially to lines or edges of a particular orientation in a specific location.

267
Q

Simple cell receptive fields likely results from the _____ of multiple LGN neurons onto a single V1 simple cell.

A

Convergence

268
Q

Complex Cells

A

A type of neuron in the primary visual cortex that responds preferentially to lines or edges of a particular orientation anywhere in its spacial receptive field.

269
Q

Looking for an object activates the V1 simple cells and complex cells whose receptive fields and orientation preferences match a _____ of an objects edge.

A

segment

270
Q

V1 neurons encode visual information from the standpoint of what is needed for _____

A

object identification

271
Q

Extrastriata Cortex

A

The region of cortex bordering the primary visual cortex and containing multiple areas involved in visual processing

272
Q

Boarder Ownership

A

When one object is in front of another, there will be a visual border formed between the object and the background

273
Q

The 3rd visual cortex (V3) plays a role i the processing of coherent _____.

A

motion

274
Q

Task segregation is the most _____ to have neurons that respond to stimuli regardless of where they are

A

efficient way

275
Q

Infrotemple (IT) cortex

A

Part of the cerebral cortex in the lower portion of the temporal lobe, important for object recognition.

276
Q

Small receptive fields and simple features of the visual cortex are combined with ever-greater-_____ as you move along the ventral stream.

A

complexity

277
Q

Hippocampus

A

A complex brain structure in the temporal lobe, which plays has a major role in learning and memory

278
Q

Plasticity

A

The quality of being easily shaped or molded

279
Q

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

A

A set of cortical areas in the inferior temporal lob containing neurons that are activated by human faces

280
Q

Agnosia

A

Object identification disorder- the inability to recognize objects, despite the ability to see them

281
Q

Humans see a narrow range of the electromagnetic spectrum between wavelengths _____ nm

A

400-700

282
Q

Color is not a physical property but a _____ property

A

psychophysical

283
Q

Most of the light we see is _____ light

A

reflected

284
Q

Longer wavelength light (>600nm) is _____ from the surface of the flower into the eyes of the observer.

A

reflected

285
Q

Spectral Sensitivity

A

The sensitivity of a cell to different wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum

286
Q

Wavelength of light for S-cones

A

425 nm

287
Q

Wavelength of light for M-cones

A

530

288
Q

Wavelength of light for L-cones

A

560

289
Q

Principal of univarance

A

An infinite set of different wavelength intensity combinations can elicit exactly the same response from a single photoreceptor

290
Q

It is the ratio of activity between (at least) _____ that allows for discrimination between color

A

two cone types

291
Q

Trichromatic theory of color vision

A

The color of any light is defined in out visual system by the relationship of three numbers- the output of the three cone photoreceptors.

292
Q

Activation of one cone type _____ the center and activation of a second cone type ______ the surround.

A

excites; inhibits

293
Q

Cone-opponent cells

A

A cell type in the retina and LGN that effectively subtracts one type of cone input from another.

294
Q

Red-Green opponent cells

A

Compares the activation of L- and M- cones in its spatial receptive field.

295
Q

Blue-Yellow opponent cells

A

Compares the activity of S-cones to the combined activity of L- and M- canes in its spatial receptive field.

296
Q

Double opponent cell

A

A class of color sensitive cell with one type of cone opponency in their receptive field center and another in the surround.

297
Q

Color blindness

A

An in ability to discriminate some colors that the majority of people can discriminate; comes in many forms

298
Q

Most color blind individuals have defective or missing _____ or _____.

A

M-cone; L-cone

299
Q

Deuteranope

A

A person who sufferers from color blindness due to the absence of M-cones

300
Q

Protanope

A

An individual who suffers from color blindness due to the absence of L-cones

301
Q

Tritanope

A

An individual who suffers from color blindness due to the absence of S-cones

302
Q

Light hits the rod photopigment _____, which converts retinal from its _____-isomner (with a _____ backbone) to the all _____-isomer (with a _____ backbone).

A

Rhodopsin; cis; bent; trans; strain

303
Q

An activated rhodopsin molecule bumps into the G-protein _____.

A

Transducin

304
Q

The G-protein becomes activated, causing one of its subunits to disassociate and activate the enzyme _____.

A

photodiesterase

305
Q

The activated enzyme degrades the second messenger _____, which are floating around the cell, down to _____.

A

Cyclic GMP (cGMP); GMP

306
Q

This light-induced decrease in the second messenger above causes _____-gated channels to _____.

A

cGMP; close

307
Q

Fewer _____ & _____ ions can enter the cell

A

Na+ & Ca++ ions

308
Q

This change in ion flux due to light results in a membrane _____ and release of _____ glutamate by the photoreceptor onto the bipolar cell.

A

Hyperpolarization; less

309
Q

Chemical transmission 1&2: Action potential arrives at the axon terminal. _____ channels open and _____ enters the cell.

A

Voltage gated Ca++; Ca++

310
Q

Chemical Transmission 3: Ca++ binds to the _____ protein on the vesicular membrane and moves the vesicle to the presynaptic membrane.

A

snare

311
Q

Chemical Transmission 4: Synaptic vesicles release their contents by _____.

A

exocytosis

312
Q

Chemical Transmission 5: _____ diffuse across the synaptic cleft.

A

Neurotransmitters

313
Q

Chemical Transmission 6: Neurotransmitters bind and open _____ ion channels.

A

Ligand-gated

314
Q

Chemical Transmission 7: Opening of channels allows for ions to enter, resulting in depolarization or hyperpolarization in postsynaptic cell (_____ potentials).

A

graded

315
Q

Chemical Transmission 8: Neurotransmitters levels in the synaptic cleft are reduced (_____ via enzymes, _____, or _____), terminating the signal.

A

Degradation; reuptake; diffusion

316
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 1 Olfactory

A

Sensory

317
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 2 Optic

A

Sensory

318
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 3 Ocular

A

Motor

319
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 4 Trochlear

A

Motor

320
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 5 Trigeminal

A

Both

321
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 6 Abducens

A

Motor

322
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 7 Facial Nerve

A

Both

323
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 8 Vestibulochlear

A

Sensory

324
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 9 Glossopharyngeal

A

Both

325
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 10 Vagus

A

Both

326
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 11 Spinal Accessory

A

Motor

327
Q

Sensory/Motor/Both: Cranial Nerve 12 Hypoglossal

A

Motor

328
Q

Mnemonic for the 12 cranial nerves

A

Ooh, ooh, ooh to touch and feel very good velvet. Such heaven!

329
Q

mnemonic for the functions of the 12 cranial nerves

A

Some say marry money but my brother says big brains matter more

330
Q

Cranial Nerve 1

A

Olfactory Nerve

331
Q

Cranial Nerve 2

A

Optic Nerve

332
Q

Cranial Nerve 3

A

Ocular Nerve

333
Q

Cranial Nerve 4

A

Trochlear Nerve

334
Q

Cranial Nerve 5

A

Trigeminal Nerve

335
Q

Cranial Nerve 6

A

Abducens Nerve

336
Q

Cranial Nerve 7

A

Facial Nerve

337
Q

Cranial Nerve 8

A

Vestibulocochlear Nerve

338
Q

Cranial Nerve 9

A

Glossopharyngeal Nerve

339
Q

Cranial Nerve 10

A

Vagus Nerve

340
Q

Cranial Nerve 11

A

Spinal Accessory Nerve

341
Q

Cranial Nerve 12

A

Hypoglossal Nerve

342
Q

Of the four major lobes of the neocortex, in which would you find the Somatosensory Cortex?

A

Parietal Lobe

343
Q

What is the resting membrane potential?

A

-70mV

344
Q

What are the three mechanisms used to maintain the resting membrane potential?

A

Sodium potassium pump 2 K+ in 3 Na+ out
Concentration Gradient outward flow of K+
Electrical Gradient inward flow of K+

345
Q

If you where to suddenly be presented with an orange light (600nm) which cone photoreceptor(s) (if any) would specifically be activated? Which would be more activated?

A

Cones M and L. L would be more strongly activated than M.

346
Q

I am a region of the brain, specifically found in the inferior temporal lobe, that assists with identifying complex visual stimuli. In particular, I house special neurons called face selective cells that respond more strongly to faces than other visual stimuli

A

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

347
Q

I receive direct input from the cone photoreceptors and express ionotropic glutamate receptors. When light is turned off, I become depolarized.

A

Off Bipolar Cells

348
Q

I am a neuron subtype that has many processes emerging from the soma, with one axon and multiple dendrites. I am the most common neuron type in the brain and spinal cord.

A

Multipolar Neuron

349
Q

I’m a part of the horizontal or lateral pathway through the retina that synapses with both photoreceptors and bipolar cells. In particular, I play an important functional role in lateral inhibition within the retina.

A

Horizontal cell

350
Q

I am a small gap in the myelin sheath coating along axons, that is often pack with voltage gated sodium and potassium channels. I don’t want to brag, but I’m pretty important… Without me, the action potential would die out and be unable to propagate down the axon.

A

Node of Ranvier

351
Q

I’m a small region of the retinal that contains a very high density of cone photoreceptors. Whenever you look at an object, you’re placing the retinal image of that object on me.

A

Fovea

352
Q

An activated rhodopsin molecule bumps into the G-protein _____ which dissociates and activates the enzyme _____. This enzyme degrades _____ down to _____, which causes ______-gated channels to close , meaning fewer Na+ and Ca+ ions can enter the cell. This change in ion flux causes a membrane _____.

A

Transducin; phosphodiesterase; cGMP; GMP; cGMP; hyperpolarization

353
Q

T/F The retina can be divided into left and right halve; the right LGN receives input from the left side of the retina in both eyes while the left LGN receives input from the right.

A

F

354
Q

T/F Each layer of the LGN receives input from one or the other eye (monocular)

A

T

355
Q

T/F The right LGN processes information from the left visual field and the left LGN processes information from the right visual field.

A

T

356
Q

Specialized cells in the retina that are biological sensors of light are called

A

photoreceptors

357
Q

Compare and contrast an accommodated vs an unaccommodated eye, include key structures involved and which condition allows for focus on distant vs. close objects.

A

Unaccommodated: When the ciliary muscle is relaxed, the fibers are stretched, and the lens is relatively flat. An unaccommodated eye is focused on distant objects.

Accommodated: When the ciliary muscles are contracted, the fibers are relaxed, and the lens is bulged. An accommodated eye is focused on nearby objects.

358
Q

Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Has a central pore, through which ions can flow.

A

Ionotropic

359
Q

Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Indirectly linked to ion channels

A

Metabotropic

359
Q

Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Activated when a neurotransmitter binds

A

Both

360
Q

Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Effects occur quickly but last only a short amount of time

A

Ionotropic

361
Q

In the presence of light, photoreceptors ______ their glutamate release, which _____ the bipolar cells, resulting in a(n) _____ of glutamate from the bipolar cells.

A

decrease; depolarizes; increase

361
Q

Metabotropic receptor, Ionotropic receptor, both, or neither: Can be activated by a change in voltage of the cell

A

Neither

362
Q

Convergence (high/low) Receptive Field (small/large) Visual Sensitivity (high/low) Visual Acuity (high/low): Rods

A

High; Large; High; Low

363
Q

Convergence (high/low) Receptive Field (small/large) Visual Sensitivity (high/low) Visual Acuity (high/low): Cones

A

Low; small; low; high

364
Q

Name the specific cells and their location in the nervous system that allow you to detect the edge between two different colors that is defined by color contrast.

A

double opponent cells in the primary visual cortex V1

365
Q

Name the brains primary excitatory neurotransmitter

A

Glutamate

366
Q

Name the brains primary inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

Gaba

367
Q

How may layers are in the LGN vs the Primary visual cortex V1

A

Both have 6 layers

368
Q

Dr. Yopak is sitting on a bench in the park reading her book about great white brains. She suddenly hears a loud noise in the distance and looks up from her book to seer. What happens to her ciliary muscles and lens to adjust to focus on what she heard?

A

Her ciliary muscles will relax and her lens will flatten allowing her to focus at a distance.

369
Q

When an individual can see close up but not far away they are experiencing near sightedness also called…

A

Myopia- light entering the eye is focused on the front of the retina

370
Q

Which of the following statements is true regarding the effect of light stimulation on photoreceptors?

A) Light depolarizes rod photoreceptors increasing the rate of glutamate release
B) Light hyperpolarizes rod photoreceptors, decreasing the rate of glutamate release.
C) Light depolarizes rod photoreceptors, decreasing the rate of glutamate release.
D) Light hyperpolarizes rod photoreceptors increasing the rate of glutamate release.

A

B

371
Q

The Term that describes the process of neuronal activity that has been proven to occur when you recognize a familiar face such as your grandmother is _____.

A

Population Coding

372
Q

The left LGN receives projections from the _____ side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world while the right LGN receives projections from the _____ side of the retina in both eyes, which sees the _____ side of your visual world.

A

Left; Right; Right; Left

373
Q

The _____ conducts action potentials away from the cell body

A

Axon

374
Q

Which of the following is NOT true about myelination?

A) Myelin is bulky
B) Myelin saves metabolic energy
C) Myelin has a good biological design
D) Myelin is entirely cost free.

A

D

375
Q

Who is responsible for formulating the doctrine of specific nerve endings?

A

Johannes Muller

376
Q

Which of the following wavelengths would have the highest concentration of M-cones?

A) 600nm
B) 530nm
C) 500nm
D) 425nm

A

B

377
Q

In response to glutamate, the metabotropic glutamate receptors in _____ bipolar cells cause ______.

A

Rod; Hyperpolarization

378
Q

Which of the following best describes the phototransduction cascade in rod cells of the human retina?

A) Light exposure increases the concentration of cyclic GMP (cGMP) in the rod cells, leading to the opening of sodium channels.
B) In response to light, rod cells release neurotransmitters that directly stimulate the optic nerve.
C) Light exposure causes a conformational change in rhobopsin, leading to the activation of transducin and decreases in cGMP levels.
D) Light exposure triggers an influx in Ca ions which results in the hyperpolarization of the rod cell membrane.

A

C

379
Q

What contributes to the resting membrane of -70mV?

A

The concentration gradient pushing K+ out of the cell and the electrical gradient trying to keep K+ in the cell.

380
Q

While visiting her eye doctor, Emily indicates that she has difficulty seeing distant objects because they appear blurry. According to these symptoms what diagnosis is Emily most likely to receive.

A

Myopia

381
Q

What is a sensory projection nuclei in the thalamus that plays a key role in visual processing?

A

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

382
Q

Say you are standing in a large empty field and to your left is a big tree. Which half of each retina would you be using to visualize the tree?

A

Right

383
Q

While saltatory conduction is occurring on a myelinated axon an action potential “Jumps across the _____.

A

Myelin Sheath

384
Q

In response to glutamate, synapses on bipolar cells are:

A

Hyperpolarized

385
Q

Cones function best in what setting

A

Bright light

386
Q

You are looking at a highly specialized neuron that is part of the human’s olfactory system. What is the likely anatomy of the neuron?

A

Bipolar

387
Q

A lion is focusing on a gazelle in the distance, this means its eyes are _____

A

Unaccommodated

388
Q

What nerves are responsible for eye movement?

A

Ocular motor nerve, Trochlear nerve, abducent nerve

389
Q

What is the most common neuron type?

A

Multipolar

390
Q

What type of photoreceptor is responsible for vision in dim light?

A

Rods

391
Q

What area of the brain exhibits minimal response to circular patters such as spots or rings, but contains neurons (simple cells) that show a preferential response to linear features, lust as lines or edges

A

Primary visual cortex V1

392
Q

Why are action potentials propagation uni-directional

A

There is a refractory period that occurs, which hyperpolarizes the membrane.

393
Q

The V1 cortical neuron responds in what way to spots?

A

weakly

394
Q

How many times is light refracted as it passes through the human eye to the retina?

A

4

395
Q

what distinguishes ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?

A

Ionotropic receptors open when activated by a specific neuron.

396
Q

What do sensory neurons focus on to pass on the most informative information?

A

Spatial and temporal variations

397
Q

Ca++ binds to the ____ protein on the vesicular membrane and moves the vesicle to the presynaptic membrane.

A

Receptor

398
Q

A molecule that produces a signal by binding to a site on a target protein is…

A

Ligand

399
Q

Hubel and Wiesel performed experiments on ____ and discovered that V1 neurons respond better to _____ than _____.

A

Cats; lines; spots

400
Q

Which of the following discovered the law that states the discrimination threshold is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus?

A

Ernest Weber

401
Q

Which cranial nerve innervates the superior oblique muscle of the eyeball?

A

Trochlear nerve, nIV

402
Q

Your Grandmother just bought a new iPhone and is super excited to Facetime you. How would you describe to her of why you’re able to recognize her biologically?

A

Population Coding Scheme where this Complex Stimuli is a combination of neurons firing collectively that encode this stimuli

403
Q

Who proposed the theory of psychophysics?

A

Gustave Fechner

404
Q

What is the name of the muscle attached to the lens that performs accommodation?

A

Ciliary

405
Q

Which anatomical feature gives the eye color?

A

Iris

406
Q

In the visual hierarchy, which pathway is the MTA located on?

A

Dorsal pathway

407
Q

Which cells aid in allowing rods to connect to retinal ganglion cells?

A

Amacrine cells

408
Q

Which cranial nerve is responsible specifically for movement of the superior oblique?

A

Trochlear Nerve

409
Q
A

BIO 442 Sensory Biology (4 decks)

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