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A&P2 Lecture > Exam 1 - Endocrine System > Flashcards

Exam 1 - Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

describe the endocrine system

A

endocrine glands and cells are located throughout the body and play an important role in homeostasis

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2
Q

which 2 systems control all physiological processes?

A

nervous system and endocrine system

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3
Q

describe the way the nervous and endocrine system work to deliver their messages

A

nervous system: exerts point-to-point control through nerves; nervous control is electrical by nature and FAST

endocrine system: broadcasts its hormonal messages to essentially all cells by secretion into blood and extracellular fluid; cells MUST BEAR A RECEPTOR for the hormone

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4
Q

define hormones

A

long distance chemical signals that travel in blood or lymph fluids

OR

chemical substances secreted by cells into extracellular fluid to regulate a metabolic function

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5
Q

define autocrines and paracrines

A

autocrines: chemicals that exert effects on the same cells that secrete them
paracrines: locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them

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6
Q

describe endocrine glands

A

ductless glands

what hormones are produced by

hormones enter blood stream or lymph fluid

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7
Q

what are the types of cellular changes that hormones can produce in target cells?

A

alter plasma membrane permeability by opening/closing ion channels

stimulate protein synthesis

activate or deactivate enzyme systems

induce secretory activity

stimulate mitosis

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8
Q

name the 2 types of hormones

A

amino acid based and steroid based hormones

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9
Q

describe amino acid based hormones

A

make up the majority of all hormones

includes amines, thyroxine (T3 & T4), peptide, water soluble, and protein hormones

second messengers: cAMP, DAG, IP3, Ca++

binds to receptor on plasma membrane

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10
Q

describe steroid based hormones

A

made from cholesterol

includes gonadal (testosterone and estrogen) and adrenocortical hormones (aldosterone, cortisol, & androgens)
*sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones)

bind to intracellular receptors

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11
Q

name the 2 mechanisms used by hormones to alter target cell activity

A

second messenger system

direct gene activation

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12
Q

describe the second messenger system

A

for water soluble/amino acid based hormones

cannot enter target cells alone

use G protein coupled receptors on plasma membrane of cell to transmit intracellular response (cAMP, DAG, IP3, Ca++)

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13
Q

describe direct gene activation

A

for lipid (fat) solube hormones (steroid and thyroid)

act directly on intracellular receptors which activates genes

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14
Q

phosphodiesterase

A

quickly degrades G protein cAMP

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15
Q

describe insulin

A

an amino acid based hormone, BUT it does not require a second messenger system

binds to receptor TYROSINE KINASE on plasma membrane

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16
Q

describe thyroxine & triiodothyronine

A

thyroid hormone; T4 AND T3

EXCEPTION TO THE AMINO ACID BASED HORMONE RULES

acts like a steroid hormone by diffusing easily into cell and binding to an intracellular receptor (taken to DNA for protein synthesis)

major metabolic hormone; increases the metabolic rate and body heat production by stimulating enzymes used in glucose metabolism

other roles: maintenance of blood pressure, regulation of tissue growth, development of skeletal and muscle systems, reproductive capabilities

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17
Q

describe the blood calcium figure 8

A

blood calcium increases, thyroid gland releases parafollicular cells (c cells), calcitonin is produced, osteoblasts are stimulated causing calcium to be deposited into bone from blood, result: decreased calcium in blood stream

blood calcium decreases, parathyroid glands release chief cells, parathyroid hormone (PTH) aka parathormone is produced, osteoclasts are stimulated causing bone to be broken down into calcium and deposited into the blood, result: increased calcium in blood stream

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18
Q

average blood calcium level

A

9-11 mg/dl

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19
Q

describe the blood glucose figure 8

A

blood glucose increases, pancreas releases beta cells (B cells), insulin is produced, attaches to RECEPTOR:TYROSINE KINASE & glucose enters cells (liver, muscle, fat), result: decreased glucose in blood stream

blood glucose decreases, pancreas releases alpha cells (fish cells), glucagon is produced, sent to liver to break down glycogen, result: increased glucose in blood stream

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20
Q

average blood glucose level

A

70-110 mg/dl

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21
Q

what kind of cells do hormones activate?

A

target cells

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22
Q

define target cells

A

must have specific receptors that the hormones can bind to

may be intracellular (steroid based) or located on the plasma membrane (amino acid/protein/peptide/water soluble based)

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23
Q

name the 3 factors that target cells depend on for activation

A

blood levels of the hormone

relative number of receptors on the target cell

the strength of those receptors for the hormone

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24
Q

define up-regulation

A

target cells form more receptors in response to hormone

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25
Q

define down-regulation

A

target cells lose receptors in response to prolonged hormone exposure

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26
Q

hormones are controlled by

A

negative feedback

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27
Q

blood calcium and blood glucose levels are controlled by

A

humoral stimuli

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28
Q

the adrenal medulla and its production of epinephrin (adrenaline) and norepinephrin (noradrenaline) is controlled by

A

neural stimuli

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29
Q

the hypothalmus and pituitary are controlled by

A

hormonal stimuli

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30
Q

master switchboard

A

hypothalmus

31
Q

hypopheseal portal system

A

blood vessels that run from the hypothalmus to the anterior pituitary

how hormones from the hypothalmus reach the anterior pituitary

32
Q

what are the hormones called that are sent through the hypopheseal portal system

A

releasing and inhibiting hormones

33
Q

hypothalmic hypopheseal tract

A

aka infundibulum “stalk”
aka nerve tract
“funnel”

how hormones from the hypothalmus are sent to the posterior pituitary to be stored and released

34
Q

name all of the major endocrine glands

A 
pituitary (hypophysis)
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands
pancreas
gonads
pineal gland
thymus
35
Q

master gland

A

anterior pituitary

36
Q

describe the posterior pituitary

A

aka neurohypophysis
made of neural tissue and the infundibulum
receives, stores, and releases 2 hormones from the hypothalmus

37
Q

describe the anterior pituitary

A

aka adenohypophysis
made up of glandular tissue
manufactures and releases 7 hormones

38
Q

name and describe the types of hormones manufactured and released by the anterior pituitary

A

tropic hormones: going to cause change in another endocrine gland; use NEGATIVE FEEDBACK to maintain homeostasis and decrease their release

  1. FSH - follicule stimulating hormone (sperm/egg)
  2. LH - luteinizing hormone (testosterone/estrogen & progesterone)
    * *^gonads^**
  3. ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone
  4. TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone

direct hormones: go directly to cells/tissue; release is decreased by INHIBITING HORMONES exception to negative feedback

  1. Growth hormone
  2. Prolactin (produces milk)
  3. MSH - melanocyte stimulating hormone
39
Q

describe growth hormone

A

also known as somatotropin
stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and cartilage to produce growth factors

growth factors: amino acid absorption, protein synthesis, and increased growth

release of GH increases the breakdown of glycogen and fats which are stored for fuel

40
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of GH

A

hypersecretion: usually results from an anterior lobe tumor

in children/before plates close: gigantism
in adults/after plates close: acromegaly - enlarged extremities

hyposecretion:

in children: pituitary dwarfism (can be treated with GH injections, but could result in fluid retention, joint/muscle pain, diabetes, and possibly cancer)
in adults: no major problems

41
Q

describe prolactin

A

stimulates milk production
stimulated by estrogen & PRH
role in males not well understood

42
Q

name the hormones stored and released by the posterior pituitary

A

OT - oxytocin

ADH - antidiuretic hormone

43
Q

describe oxytocin

A 
uterine contractions
milk "let down"
sexual arousal/orgasm
"cuddle hormone"
promotes nurturing/affectionate behavior 
*regulated by POSITIVE FEEDBACK
pitocin is artificial form
44
Q

describe ADH

A

H20 reabsorption

hypothalmic osmoreceptors respond to changes in the solute concentration of the blood

high solute conc/low water: ADH is synthesized and released, inhibiting urine formation (keeping water in)

low solute conc/high water: ADH is not released, allowing water loss

vasopressin/vasoconstriction of visceral blood vessels

targets renal tubules of kidneys; ADH causes these ducts to reabsorb more water during times of high solute levels

45
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of ADH

A

hypersecretion:
in children with meningitis; following neurosurgery, trauma, or secreted by cancer cells
after general anesthesia: can lead to SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion)

hyposecretion:
can result in diabetes insipidus
huge urine output; intense thirst

46
Q

describe the process of the hormonal stimuli chart

A

the hypothalmus will either use the hypothalmic hypopheseal tract (to pp) or the hypopheseal portal system (to aa)

option 1: OT or ADH will be released
option 2: negative feedback for tropic hormones (FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH) or releasing hormones for direct hormones (GH, prolactin, MSH) to be released

hormones are released to find target gland

target gland releases target hormone (from thyroid, adrenal cortex, or gonads)
negative feedback for tropic hormones/inhibiting hormones for direct hormones

hormones sent to target cells

47
Q

name the inhibiting and releasing hormones and their anterior pituitary matches

A

GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)&raquo_space; FSH & LH

CRH (corticatropin releasing hormone&raquo_space; ACTH

TRH (thyroid releasing hormone)&raquo_space; TSH

GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) & GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone)&raquo_space; GH

PRH (prolactin releasing hormone) & PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone)&raquo_space; PRL

48
Q

describe the thyroid gland

A

located in the neck where it wraps around the trachea

produces thyroid hormone (t4 and t3)

49
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of TH

A

hyperthyroidism:
Grave’s disease - autoimmune disease; overproduction of antibodies that resemble TSH
- elevated metabolic rate, sweating, rapid/irregular heartbeat, nervousness, weight loss, bulging eyes

hypothyroidism:
(in adults) Myxedema - lack of iodine; low metabolic rate, chilled, constipation, thick/dry skin, puffy eyes, edema, lethargy, mental sluggishness
(in kids) Cretinism - mental retardation, disproportionate body, thick tongue and neck

50
Q

describe the parathyroid glands

A

4-8 tiny glands located in the posterior thyroid

chief cells produce parathyroid hormone

PTH is the most important hormone is calcium homeostasis

51
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of PTH

A

hyperparathyroidism: rare; due to a tumor
bones soften and deform (osteitis fibrosa cystica)
elevated blood calcium depress nervous system and contribute to the formation of kidney stones (calculi)

hypoparathyroidism:
following gland trauma or removal (or prolonged Mg deficiency)
increases excitability of muscles; results in tetany, respiratory paralysis, and possibly death

52
Q

describe the adrenal glands

A

both adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and are composed of an outer cortex and inner medulla
*the cortex is subdivided into additional zones

53
Q

name the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex & their hormones

  • Guys Fight Regularly*
  • AL, CORey, & ANDRew*
A

zona glomerulosa - ALdosterone

zona fasciculata - CORtisol

zona reticularis - ANDRogens

54
Q

describe aldosterone

A

produced by the zona glomerulosa

MINERALcorticoid

reabsorption/water retention in kidneys, Na+ resorption & K+ secretion, increase blood pressure, increase blood volume

55
Q

mineralcorticoid

A

regulate electrolytes (usually Na+ and K+)

effect volume of blood and ECF

56
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of aldosterone

A

hypersecretion:
aldosteronism
due to adrenal tumors
hypertension and edema due to excessive amounts of Na+
excretion of K+ leads to abnormal function of neurons and muscles, possibly coma & death

hyposecretion:
usually along with hyposecretion of glucocorticoids
Addisons’s disease - weight loss, glucose & Na+ levels drop, K+ levels rise
dehydration and hypotension
treated with corticosteroid replacement therapy

57
Q

describe cortisol

A

primary hormone during long term stress

produced by the zona fasciculata

in response to ACTH, patterns of eating/activity, stress

GLUCOcorticoid

increases blood glucose, decreases inflammation, weakens immune system
(the more stress you’re under, the more cortisol is produced, the more your immune system is weakened)

58
Q

glucocorticoids

A

keep blood glucose levels relatively constant
maintain blood pressure
major group released especially during long term stress

59
Q

describe the effects of hypertension and hypotension of glucocorticoids

A

hypersecretion:
Cushing’s Syndrome -
depressing cartilage and bone formation
anti-inflammatory and anti-immune effects
promotes changes in cardiovascular, neural, and GI function
loss in muscle and bone protein, water and salt retention leading to higher BP and edema (swelling)

hyposecretion: Addison’s Disease (along with deficit of mineralcorticoids)

60
Q

describe androgens

A

produced by the zona reticularis

GONADocorticoid

male sex hormones, testosterone onset to puberty

appearance of secondary sex characteristics

can be converted into estrogen for females, only source of testosterone in females

61
Q

gonadocorticoids

A

most are androgens
converted into testosterone or estrogen
released from the gonads during puberty

62
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion of gonadocorticoids

A

adrenogenital syndrome (masculinization)

males: rapid maturation of the reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics in young males; generally not visible
females: hair growth in areas associated with males; clitoris can elongate to resemble a small penis

63
Q

describe the adrenal medulla

A

made up of chromaffin cells that seceret 80% epinephrin & 20% norepinephrin

production stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system in response to short term stress

increased bp & heart rate, blood diversion from digestive system to brain, heart, skeletal muscle, etc.

prep for fight or flight

64
Q

describe the pancreas

A

(excocrine function) acinar cells secrete a digestive enzyme that travels to the small intestine through the pancreatic duct

(endocrine function) secretion of insulin and glucagon; these regulate the rate of glucose metabolism in the body

65
Q

name the hormones secreted by the pancreas

A

glucagon and insulin

66
Q

describe glucagon

A

hyperglycemic agent - raises blood glucose levels

its major target is the liver where it promotes:
release of glucose into the blood from liver cells
works in opposition to insulin
glycogenolysis: the breakdown of glycogen into glucose
gluconeogenesis: synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrates

controlled by negative feedback

67
Q

describe insulin

A

hypoglycemic agent: lowers blood glucose levels

effects:
enhances membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells
inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogensis

controlled by negative feedback

68
Q

describe the effects of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of insulin

A

hyperinsulinism: hypoglycemia, disorientation, unconsciousness

hyposecretion: results in diabetes mellitus
1. polyuria - huge urine output; excess glucose by osmosis pulls water out
2. polydipsia - excessive thirst
3. polyphagia: excessive hunger and food consumption
- hyperglycemia; results in glycosuria: output of glucose in urine
- lack of glucose means tissues must use fatty acids for energy; results in high level of fatty acids and their metabolites (aka ketone bodies) i n the blood
- rapid collection of ketone bodies can lead to ketoacidosus: kidney damage/failure, coma, and death

69
Q

what are the types of diabetes mellitus?

A

Type 1: insulin dependent
early onset, total lack of insulin production
long term vascular & neural problems such as high cholesterol, risk of vascular diseases, arteriosclerosis, stroke, heart attack, blindness

Type 2: non-insulin dependent
late onset, inadequate amounts of insulin or resistant insulin receptors
90% characterized by overweight

70
Q

describe the female gonads

A

paired ovaries in the abdominopelvic cavity

estrogen:
maturation of reproductive organs
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
thickening of the uterus in preparation for pregnancy

progesterone (& estrogen):
breast development
menstrual cycle

71
Q

describe the male gonads

A

testes located in extra-abominal sac (scotum)

testosterone:
initiates maturation of reproductive organs
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
necessary for sperm production
maintains reproductive organs in their functional state

72
Q

describe the pineal gland

A

small gland hanging from the roof of the 3rd ventricle in the brain

produces melatonin:
involved in timing of sexual maturation and puberty
day/night sleep/wake cycle
involved in psychological processes that show rhythmic variations (body temp, sleep, appetite)

73
Q

describe the thymus

A

located deep in the sternum
large in children, but shrinks with age

produces thymopoietins and thymosins:
essential for the development of lymphocytes (T cells) in the immune system

A&P2 Lecture (4 decks)

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