Exam 1 (Ch 1,2,3) Flashcards
1
Q
Motivation serves as an intervening variable in the example of running rats. Define this term:(p4-5)
A
It serves to link a stimulus and response and helps to relate the two.
2
Q
How does the text describe a performance variable? (P5)
A
When enough motivation is present, behavior is performed, when motivation is too low, behavior is absent.
3
Q
Contrast motivation with learning. (p. 5)
A
Motivation offers a temporary change in behavior while learning offers a more permanent change in behavior
4
Q
While the occurrence of overt behavior is generally taken as evidence of motivation, its absence does not necessarily mean what? (p. 6)
A
Does not necessarily mean lack of motivation.
5
Q
Both casual observation and laboratory research suggest that __________ behavior is more motivated than __________ behavior. (p. 6)
A
Energetic, hesitant
6
Q
Vigorous responses do not always mean high motivation. Give the example from the book that demonstrates this fact. (p. 7)
A
Ex: It is possible to teach a rat that the correct response to obtain food is to push down a lever with a certain amount of force.
7
Q
____________ is often considered an index of motivational state. (p. 7)
A
Directionality
8
Q
What is the goal of preference testing? (p. 7)
A
To determine between one or more objects from the environment which is the more motivating.
9
Q
What is the main difference in focus between the nomothetic and the idiographic approach? (p. 7-8)
A
- Nomothetic approach involves the development of general or universal laws to determine how something is similar.
- Idiographic approach proposes that we can understand behavior by looking at how people differ from each other by examining how people are unique.
10
Q
What is the term used by McDougall and James to describe innate motives? (p. 8)
A
instincts.
11
Q
According to the text, different motive states can be conceptualized as needs that promote need-reducing behaviors. How are needs usually viewed? (p. 8)
A
… as internal sources of motivation that activate the direct behavior to the environment, that alleviate some state of deprivation.
12
Q
What are the assumptions of the mechanistic approach? (p. 9)
A
it assumes that changes in a specific factor can activate circuits that in turn motivate the organism to engage in behavior.
13
Q
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach? (p. 9)
A
how information is interpreted dictates how you feel
14
Q
What are the four main categories used by the book to describe levels of analysis? (pp. 9-10)
A
Psychological Analysis
Individual Analysis
Social Analysis
Philosophical Analysis
15
Q
What has direct manipulation of the brain by electrical stimulation shown us? (p. 10)
A
They can be pleasurable or a reward
16
Q
Activity of large groups of brain cells can be recorded by ______, while small groups and single neurons can be recorded with ________ ________. (p. 10)
A
EEG, depth electrodes
17
Q
If we detect behavioral changes in several individuals during an experiment, what might it be proper to presume? (p. 11)
A
These changes are also present in people in general
18
Q
Bandura’s research with the Bobo doll is important for an understanding of motivation at the level of the individual. What does it suggest? (p. 11)
A
Some motivated behaviors are learned quite simply through observation.
19
Q
Some motives may be learned through observation. What is this called? (p. 14)
A
This is called Modeling
20
Q
What is growth motivation? (p. 15)
A
Stresses the idea that humans are motivated to reach their full potential - physically, psychologically and emotionally.
21
Q
Descartes’ idea of ________ states that humans are motivated by both body (or _______) and soul (or _____). (p. 16-17)
A
Dualism, Instinct, Will
22
Q
The _____ _____ of ideas, according to John Locke, are the conversion of ________ into _________, and ________. (p. 17)
A
two sources, sensation, perception, reflection
23
Q
What is the importance of Müller’s doctrine of specific nerve energies? [Two reasons] (p. 18)
A
Nerves send specific coded messages rather than allowing for animal spirits
These codes determine the content of the information.
24
Q
Though Gall’s phrenology is no longer useful, there is value in his emphasis on what? (p. 18)
A
His emphasis on the localization of function within the brain has been very important.
25
According to Dawkins, why do living organisms exist? (p. 21)
Living organisms exist for the benefit of DNA. Organisms are simply the temporary receptacles that flow information stored in the Genes to continue to exist across time.
26
Distinguish between mitosis and meiosis. (p. 21-22)
Mitosis: a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (asexual)
Meiosis: a process where two specialized cells(each with half the number of chromosomes of a normal cell) are produced by a female and male and are then later combined to form a new cell that includes genetic information from each of the two individual cells.
27
Why is the survival of the individual so ‘viciously and tenaciously defended,’ according to the authors? (p. 22)
Because the survival of the individual’s genetic information is dependent on the successful reproduction of that individual or related individuals who share some of the individual’s genes.
28
Based on the analysis on page 22, which is the more fundamental process: reproduction or metabolism?
Reproduction is the more fundamental process
29
Sexual motivation is a mechanism for finding a partner for procreation. Which organisms are most successful and what becomes the norm for a species? (p. 22)
Organisms with the strongest sexual motivation would be expected to be the most successful and would would eventually become the norm.
30
All organisms alive today compete to provide _____________________ (p. 22)
the players(genetic information for the next generation of the game
31
What is the first advantage of sexual, rather than asexual, reproduction? (p. 23)
A recombination of the genes of the two parents, thus providing offspring that possess new genetic combinations that provide a greater diversity of genes for survival
Sexually reproductive species can evolve faster
32
A second advantage of sexual reproduction is that it can allow ______ of genetic material within the ____ _____. (p. 23)
repair, gene pool
33
Beneficial mutations can spread rapidly through the gene pool without losing what? (p. 23).
The advantages of the original gene
34
Why is sexual behavior pleasurable? (p. 23-24).
Motivates animals to reproduce
35
What is one reason that ‘safe sex’ is so difficult to sell to men especially? (p. 24)
Reduces possibilities of reproduction
36
Why is the male red spider’s behavior considered to be adaptive? (p. 24)
Because his genetic information is more likely to continue than a male spider who does not behave in this way.
37
The aggressive behavior of many mothers when offspring are endangered can be viewed as a tendency to ________________________.(p. 24)
Risk ones life for the next generation.
38
How do tropical mammals differ from those in temperate zones? (p. 24)
Tropical female mammals are more receptive to sexual activity all year
39
The authors suggest that cyclic sexual receptivity evolved for a particular reason. What is it? (p. 24)
Cyclic sexual receptivity evolved to restrict sexual behavior in those times when successful reproduction was most likely to occur.
40
What is the unusual result of the behavior of species (such as humans and bonobos) that engage in sex for non-reproductive reasons? (p. 24)
They increase the chances of living long enough to successfully reproduce.
41
The interaction of two things leads to the process called natural selection. What are they? (p. 26)
The environment influences the progression of genetic change.
42
Natural selection influences three characteristics of genes: _____, _____ and _____. (p. 26)
viability, fertility and fecundity
43
Give a brief evolutionary explanation for the distress calls of baby chicks. (p. 26)
Calls the mother to come look for them. Promotes survival, protection for chicks
44
What is sexual selection? (p. 27)
Choosing a particular member of the opposite sex to mate with instead of another.
45
A human female has about _____ chances to pass her genetic information between the ages of ___ and ___. (p. 27)
400, 13, 45
46
What is the developmental period that is of such concern to females? (p. 27)
When the offspring need to be maintained before they can maintain themselves.
47
What is the difference between a female’s and male’s mating strategy? (p. 27)
Female optimal strategy should be to select a mate who will provide her offspring(and thus her genes) with the greatest chance of survival.
The optimal strategy for the male wold be to mate with as many females as possible in order to pass his genetic information on to the next generation.
48
To what type of man does evolutionary theory suggest women be attracted? (p. 27)
Men who possess the resources to support them and any children they produce because women have a larger investment in their offspring than men do.
49
f women are competing for men, what does evolutionary theory suggest that women will do? (p. 28)
Such competition should revolve around reproductive value associated with youthfulness and health and is generally indicated by physical appearance and attractiveness.
50
William James emphasized three important components in human behavior. What are those three? (p. 28)
Instincts, emotion, thoughts
51
What does it mean when the author says that motivation appears to be ‘overdetermined’? (p. 29)
Multiple systems that can back up if one fails.
52
Name the three “super-theories” that were the dominant approaches to motivation at different times in history, in chronological order (3320basics, Slide 15)
Will, Instinct, Drive
53
Why did the will theory of motivation decline? (3320basics, Slide 18)
Will could not be easily measured.
54
Describe one observation that challenged the theory that reward was equivalent to drive reduction. (3320basics, Slide 24)
- Anorexics don’t eat despite drive
| - Partial Copulation can be rewarding to male rats
55
Name two psychological facts that evolution (i.e., maximizing survival or reproductive success) might not account for. (Evolution, Slide 2)
Curiosity
Hedonism
Meaningfulness
56
When one human recognizes another, a specific, universal pattern of behaviors occurs. What are they? (p. 35)
Smile, briefly raises his or her eyebrows.
57
What is the textbook’s definition of an instinct? (p. 36)
Genetically motivated behavior that occurs when circumstances are appropriate and that requires no learning of the behavior.
58
What did William James believe about instincts? [Three things.] (p. 36)
- Similar to reflexes
- Called by sensory stimuli
- Occur blindly the first time
59
What are the two principles James used to explain the variability of instincts? (p. 37)
- habit(learning) can inhibit an instinct
| - Some instincts are transitory, useful only at certain times or during certain developmental periods.
60
McDougall saw every instinct as having three components. Name and briefly explain (1-3 words) these components. (p. 37)
cognitive: knowing of an object that can satisfy the instinct
Affective: feeling (emotion) the object arouses in the organism
Conative: striving toward or away from the object
61
Kuo insisted that instincts are not the motive forces underlying behavior__________________ . (p. 39)
because behavior is aroused by external stimuli
62
Tolman’s emphasis was on the behavioral ends toward which the behavior is directed. What did he believe? (p. 39)
Particular goals and needs were instinct but the behavior to satisfy instincts can be learned.
63
What is the difference between consummatory behavior and appetitive behavior? (p. 40)
- Consummatory behavior: coordinated, fixed patterns of responding to stimuli
Appetitive behavior: restless, searching, flexible, adaptive, learning
Difference: Appetitive can be modified through learning, while consummately is innate(stereotyped).
64
What do ASE and IRM stand for? (p. 40)
ASE: Action Specific Energy
IRM: Innate Releasing Mechanism
65
If ringed plover are given a choice between their own brown spotted eggs and other black and white spotted eggs, which do they choose? (p. 40)
They will choose eggs that belong to other birds.
66
What do we call stimuli that release behavior more effectively than the normal stimulus? (p. 40)
Supernormal key stimuli or super-optimal key stimuli
67
Fixed action patterns are species-specific motor patterns that are____, _____ ___ ______. (p. 41-42)
rigid, stereotyped and blind
68
Give the example of intention movement in humans that is cited in the text. (p. 43)
When one is about to leave a conversation the shifting of weight on feet Indicates the indication.
69
When is learning primarily useful, according to Lorenz? (p. 43)
With the relationship with the external environment.
70
Name the four categories of conflict behavior. (p. 44)
Successive Ambivalent Behavior:
Simultaneous Ambivalent Behavior:
Redirected Behavior:
Ethological Displacement:
71
When does ethological displacement occur? (p. 44)
When two equally strong motives are in conflict and are inhibiting each other.
72
Define imprinting. (p. 45)
A socialization process in which young organisms forms an attachment to it’s parents.
73
What did Lorenz cite as the three major characteristics of imprinting? [Hint: when, how long, and how.] (p. 46)
When: sensitive period
How Long: permanent and irreversible
How: independent of reward
74
What do frog eye receptors respond to, and what response is released by the stimuli? (p. 47)
The curved edges and the tongue snapping
75
What difference does longevity of an organism make, according to Mayr? (p. 48)
Long living organisms would tend to have more open programs (can be modified by experience).
76
What four facial expressions are not learned and appear to be cross-cultural? (p. 49)
Smiling, laughing, weeping and frowning
77
What is the eyebrow flick and when is it seen? (p. 49)
A very brief lifting of the eyebrow upon greeting an acquaintance.
78
Hager and Ekman believe that their experimental results show that the face is _______________________ . (p. 50)
a long distance transmitter of emotion
79
What features tend to release a cuddling instinct in humans? (p. 51)
Chubby cheeks, small mouth, large head, large eyes.
80
What did Eibl-Eibesfeldt suggest that kissing actually is? (p. 52)
A ritualized for of feeding behavior derived from the feeding of the infant.
81
What is the purpose of a stare in primates? (p. 52)
The stare is a frequently used threat gesture
82
Name the three behaviors that major depressives differed in pre- and post-treatment. (p. 53)
- Eye contact
- Exploration of their environment
- Social behaviors
83
What happens in the interspecies aggression called mobbing behavior? (p. 54)
When several prey species gang up on a predator and attack.
84
When and why do male animals sometimes kill young of their own species? (p. 54-55)
When a male will kill the young of a female that he has made his, so the other male’s genes don’t continue.
85
Serious injury from intraspecific conflict is avoided with what behaviors? Give an example. (p. 55)
Appeasement Gestures: A dog rolling over on his back in a submissive posture.
86
In order for successful mating to occur, _________ responses toward a ________ ________ must first be reduced to levels that allow the emergence of ________ ________. (p. 55-56)
aggressive, potential mate, sexual responses
87
What does Cosmides suggest was the origin of war? (p. 56)
It developed a way for men to gain increased access to women
88
Why is it advantageous to feed in a group? (p. 57)
Protection from predators
89
The basic idea underlying arousal theory is that we can understand motivation by viewing it as a ________ ranging from low levels of arousal (_______ or ______) to very high levels (________). (p. 62)
continuum, coma or sleep, stress
90
Describe the relationship between arousal and performance as seen in the Yerkes-Dodson law. (p. 62-63)
It indicates that increasing arousal improves performance only up to a point, after which continued increases in arousal begin to interfere with responding.
91
Based on the differing results obtained by Bremer’s two procedures, it was believed that arousal level is controlled by a brain structure located specifically where? (p. 63-64)
In the pons
92
I see beta waves on your EEG. What behaviors are you likely to be exhibiting? (p. 64)
Alertness and attention
93
What was the result when Lindsley cut the Reticular Activating System (RAS)? (p. 64)
An animal that is always asleep
94
What is motivation for Hebb? (p. 65)
Activation of the cortex by the Reticular Activating System (RAS)
95
How are Lacey’s multiple types of arousal seen? (p. 67)
Behavioral arousal:
Autonomic arousal:
Cortical arousal:
96
One major problem with arousal theory is the lack of a strong relationship between measures of three types of arousal. What are the three? (p. 67)
Behavioral, Autonomic and Cortical
97
How do Webb and Agnew explain their idea that sleep is adaptive for organisms? (p. 68)
It keeps organisms from responding at unwanted or dangerous times.
98
It is currently believed that sleep is controlled by at least two separate processes. What are these two? (p. 68-69)
Circadian Rhythms, Homeostasis Process
99
What happens to sleep patterns in the elderly? (p. 69)
More variability, more awakening during night and daytime naps
100
Stage 5 of sleep … describe the EEG pattern and give the more common name for this stage. (p. 69-70)
REM Sleep: a mix of Alpha, Beta, Theta waves and similar to the wake state.
101
What do researchers believe is the function of NREM sleep? (p. 71)
Restorative function
102
What differences are seen in the dreams associated with REM and NREM sleep? (p. 71)
REM dreams are more emotional and strong
| NREM dreams are more monad, non-emotional
103
How much time does the average person spend in dreaming per night? (p. 72)
About 100 minutes per night
104
What two things seem to affect whether we remember a dream? (p. 72)
- if the dream is closer to awakening
| - Salience: things that catch attention (emotional, important or large and imposing)
105
Explain (and differentiate between) the continuity and repetition principles of dreams. (p. 73)
- Continuity: dreams of personal concerns during the day
| - Repetition: same dream occurs over different nights
106
How does a full night without sleep affect depressed individuals? (p. 74)
It can me an antidepressant.
107
What effects are seen with REM deprivation in animals? (p. 74)
Shift in eating patterns, increases in sexual and aggressive behavior
108
Name two of the four arousal promoting neurotransmitters described in the text. (p. 75-76)
Serotonin, Histamine
109
Goats, cats, rats – what did Pappenheimer do and what were the results? (p. 78)
Deprived goats of sleep for 48 hours and withdrew some cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid was then injected into the cerebrospinal fluid of lab cats. The result is the cats became drowsy.
110
What accounts for the arousal properties of coffee and tea? (p. 78)
Caffeine in coffee and theophyllinene in tea block the receptor sites for Adenosine, account for the arousal properties.
111
When in the lifespan can REM periods first be detected in humans? (p. 79)
REM periods ca e detected as early as three months before birth.
112
What is the relationship between REM sleep and memory, according to Greenberg? (p. 79)
REM is involved in the consolidation of memories.
113
What does Selye note about the “complete freedom from stress”? (p. 82)
Death
114
What did Selye notice were the common symptoms of most diseases? (p. 84)
Looks and feels sick, coated tongue, loss of appetite, fever.
115
What are the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome? (p. 84-85)
Alarm reaction
Stage of resistance
Stage of exhaustion
116
What is the function of inflammation? (p. 85)
Limit the spread of stressors
117
What is the basic idea underlying life change research? (p. 86)
Events in our lives can increase physical and mental illness
118
What temporal fact have researchers noted about life changes and illness? (p. 86)
Illness occurs within 2 years of life change or social stress.
119
In one Holmes and Masuda study, ___% of people scoring above 300 on their scale had a major health change within two years, as did __% of those scoring between 200 and 299, and __% of those from 150 to 199. (p. 87)
80%, 48%, 33%
120
The personality style labeled hardiness consists of which three personality characteristics? (p. 89)
Commitment, Control and Challenge
121
Briefly, how does hardiness seem to help people buffer stress? (p. 89)
Helps individuals keep changing life experiences in perspective.
122
What does social support theory propose? (p. 90)
Social relationships buffer the effects of stress through encouraging an individual or individuals can offer to the person experiencing the stress.
123
Investigators studying expressive style found that those who use ______ as a way of coping moderated stress of negative life events while those who use _______ _________ did not. (p. 91)
humor, emotional weeping
124
Behavior can influence health in at least three different ways. Name them. (p. 92)
- Connection between brain and immune system
- Increase chances to remain healthy
Directly influence the body
125
There is bi-directional communication between the _____ and the immune system, and the immune system influences both the _________ system and ________. (p. 93)
brain, endocrine, behavior
126
What is an antigen? (p. 93)
Any substance that produces an immune reaction
127
What are the gender differences found by Perry in adult effects of chronic childhood abuse? (Stress, Slide 9)
- Males develop fight-or-flight response: as adults, respond aggressively to minor stress
- Females develop dissociative response: as adults, prone to fantasy, may become drug addicts or develop dissociative disorder.
