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BIOL 214 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Chemical Level of Organization

Atoms

A

the smallest units of matter that retain all of the properties of an element

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2
Q

Chemical level:

molecules

A

consist of two or more atoms that are chemically joined together

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3
Q

Cellular level:

Cells

A

structural and functional units of life

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4
Q

Cellular level:

organelles

A

structures, regions, or molecules in a cell that carry out specific tasks

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5
Q

Tissue level:

Tissue

A

a collection of similar cells that work together to perform a particular function

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6
Q

four types of tissues that make up our bodies

A

epithelial, connective (bone, cartilage, adipose), muscle, nervous.

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7
Q

Organ level:

organ

A

consists of two or more tissue types that assume a recognizable shape and perform a particular function

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8
Q

Organ System level:

organ system

A

a group of organs that perform a unique collective function

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9
Q

Organismal level:

organism

A

single, completely functional living individual

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10
Q

Homeostasis

A

The body’s internal environment is maintained within certain physiological limits to establish a dynamic equilibrium for a particular variable.

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11
Q

How is homeostasis maintained

A

by feedback mechanisms

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12
Q

Negative feedback

A

occurs when the body detects a change in homeostasis and responds by activating mechanisms that either negate the change or reverse the change.

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13
Q

What is an analogy of negative feedback

A

a thermostat that controls a furnace

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14
Q

Positive feedback

A

occurs when the body detects a physiological change and responds by enhancing the original change.

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15
Q

An analogy of positive feedback

A

accelerating away from a stop signal

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16
Q

anatomical position

A

feet are placed shoulder width apart, arms at the sides, and palms facing forward

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17
Q

Superior

A

directs you above or toward the head

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18
Q

inferior

A

directs you below or toward the tail end.

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19
Q

Anterior

A

directs you toward the front or belly

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20
Q

posterior

A

directs you toward the back or spine

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21
Q

Medial

A

directs you toward the midline of the body

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22
Q

lateral

A

directs you away from the midline of the body.

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23
Q

Proximal

A

a point closer to the origin or attachment of a structure

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24
Q

distal

A

a point farther away from the origin or attachment of a structure.

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25
Q

Superficial

A

directs you toward the body’s surface

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26
Q

deep

A

directs you away from the body’s surface.

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27
Q

Supine

A

the palms facing forward or lying face up

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28
Q

prone

A

the palms facing rearward or lying face down.

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29
Q

Sagittal plane

A

passes vertically through the body dividing it into right and left portions.

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30
Q

Frontal plane

A

a vertical plane perpendicular to any sagittal plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

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31
Q

Horizontal (transverse) plane

A

perpendicular to any sagittal or frontal plane and divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

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32
Q

Dorsal body cavity

A

located near the posterior surface.

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33
Q

cranial cavity

A

formed by the bones of the skull and contains the brain

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34
Q

vertebral canal

A

formed by the vertebrae and contains spinal cord

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35
Q

dorsal body cavity is lined by

A

three layers of membranes called meninges

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36
Q

protects the delicate components of nervous system

A

Dorsal body cavity

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37
Q

Ventral body cavity is located

A

near the anterior surface and is separated into two regions by the muscular diaphragm.

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38
Q

thoracic cavity is lined by

A

pleurae and contains the lungs

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39
Q

abdominopelvic cavity is lined by

A

a membrane called the peritoneum

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40
Q

the most abundant carbon compounds in living organisms

A

Carbohydrates

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41
Q

provide a major source of energy

A

Carbohydrates

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42
Q

Monosaccharides

A

simple sugars that contain three to seven carbon atoms.

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43
Q

isomers

A

they have the same molecular formula, but different chemical structures

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44
Q

main source of energy for most cells

A

Glucose

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45
Q

Play in role in building of nucleic acids

A

ribose and deoxyribose

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46
Q

Disaccharides

A

form when two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis.

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47
Q

sucrose

A

(table sugar) is formed from glucose and fructose and is used to transport sugar in plants

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48
Q

formed from glucose and galactose and is often called “milk sugar“

A

lactose

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49
Q

formed from glucose and glucose and is a by-product of starch digestion

A

maltose

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50
Q

Polysaccharides

A

long chains of glucose molecules that are relatively insoluble in water,which makes them useful storage compounds or structural components.

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51
Q

glycogen

A

a highly branched polymer of glucose molecules used for energy storage in muscle cells, liver cells, and uterine cells

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52
Q

can be joined to lipids and proteins to form glycolipids and glycoproteins.

A

Carbohydrates

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53
Q

The only type of biological molecule that isn’t a polymer

A

Lipids

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54
Q

hydrophobic biological molecules that are insoluble in water

A

Lipids

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55
Q

store more energy per gram than carbohydrates

A

lipids

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56
Q

Triglycerides

A

consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule (lipid)

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57
Q

Phospholipids

A

resemble triglycerides, but a phosphate group replaces one of the fatty acids to make them amphipathic with hydrophobic “tails” and hydrophilic “heads”

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58
Q

complex lipids whose structure contains four rings of carbon atoms.

A

Steroids

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59
Q

a steroid that comes from animal products and is needed by the body to synthesize sex hormones and other steroids

A

cholesterol

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60
Q

combines with fat, phospholipids, and proteins to form lipoproteins

A

Cholesterol

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61
Q

high-density lipoprotein (HDL)

A

has a relatively low lipid-to-protein ratio
Considered “good” cholesterol that helps prevent cardiovascular disease

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62
Q

low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

A

has a higher lipid-to-protein ratio
Considered “bad” cholesterol that contributes to cardiovascular disease

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63
Q

the most diverse carbon compounds found in living organisms, comprising between 10 and 30% of cell mass.

A

Proteins

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64
Q

make up hair, nails, and muscle fibers

A

structural proteins

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65
Q

carry substances throughout the body

A

transport proteins

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66
Q

serve as chemical messengers

A

protein hormones

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67
Q

protect an organism against disease-causing agents

A

antibodies

68
Q

catalyze chemical reactions necessary by cells to sustain life

A

enzymes

69
Q

A protein’s function is influenced by

A

its shape based on its levels of structural organization.

70
Q

usually globular protein molecules that act as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of a biochemical reaction without being changed or used up during the reaction.

A

Enzymes

71
Q

lower the activation energy needed to get a chemical reaction started, but they cannot force a chemical reaction to occur

A

enzymes

72
Q

An enzyme has a unique shape with a special region called its

A

active site.

73
Q

bind to the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex that will help carry out the reaction

A

chemical substrates

74
Q

are often highly specific and may catalyze only a single reaction

A

enzymes

75
Q

polymers of nucleotide monomers and are the largest biological molecules in the body.

A

Nucleic acids

76
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) consists of

A

two long chains of deoxynucleotides organized into a double helix.

77
Q

a nucleotide that contains the sugar ribose, three phosphate groups attached to the 5’ carbon, and adenine attached to the 1’ carbon.

A

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

78
Q

Cytosol

A

the intracellular fluid (ICF) in the cytoplasm that surrounds the organelles.

79
Q

chromatin

A

a tangled mass of DNA, globular histone proteins, and RNA

80
Q

primary function of the nucleus

A

stores genetic information that controls the activities of the cell

81
Q

Nucleoli

A

spherical bodies made of protein, DNA, and RNA that assemble ribosomes.

82
Q

membranous or non-membranous structures or compartments in a cell.

A

Organelles

83
Q

cytoskeleton

A

a system of filaments and tubules that provides internal organization, gives a cell its overall shape, and enables a cell and its organelles to move.

84
Q

microfilaments

A

provide mechanical support and participate in muscle contraction, cell division, and cell locomotion

85
Q

intermediate filaments

A

provide points of anchorage inside the cell

86
Q

microtubules

A

contribute to structure of cilia and flagella and guide movement of chromosomes during cell division

87
Q

Ribosomes

A

make proteins that perform specific cellular tasks in the cytosol

88
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER

A

involved in protein synthesis and intracellular transport

89
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

A

involved in lipid synthesis and intracellular transport

90
Q

Golgi complex

A

receives newly synthesized proteins from rough endoplasmic reticulum, modifies them, processes them, and then packages them into vesicles for use in the cell or for export out of the cell

91
Q

Lysosomes

A

enzymes digest worn-out organelles and recycle them through autophagy
lysosomes may also digest and destroy their own cell through autolysis

92
Q

Peroxisomes

A

abundant in liver cells and kidney cells where they can detoxify alcohol and other drugs

93
Q

Mitochondria

A

provides the energy

94
Q

Centrioles

A

collections of microtubules that play an important role in cell division.

95
Q

centrosome

A

two centrioles form an area in the cytoplasm

96
Q

energy associated with motion

A

kinetic energy

97
Q

stored energy

A

potential energy

98
Q

stored in chemical bonds that join atoms together

A

chemical potential energy

99
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A

energy can NEVER be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form into another form.

100
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

energy transformations MUST lose some useful energy to a useless form that cannot be recovered.

101
Q

Living systems tend to become more disorganized when

A

energy is not available.

102
Q

entropy

A

measures the randomness or disorder in a system

103
Q

Glycolysis

A

“sugar splitting” is the first step in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

104
Q

aerobic respiration

A

requires that oxygen be available and is much more efficient

105
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

occurs when oxygen is not available

106
Q

Cellular respiration involves four metabolic pathways

A

glycolysis, formation of acetyl coenzyme A, Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

107
Q

“prime the pump”

A

Two molecules of ATP are split and the phosphate groups are added to a molecule of glucose.

108
Q

where does glycolysis take place

A

takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell

109
Q

when does glycolysis take place

A

when glucose is available

110
Q

why does glycolysis take place

A

uses energy stored in the chemical bonds of glucose to form ATP

111
Q

How does glycolysis take place

A
  • glucose is oxidized to form pyruvic acid
  • there is a net gain of two molecules of ATP
  • two molecules of NADH are generated to carry high-energy electrons
112
Q

where does lactic acid formation occur

A

in overworked muscle cells

113
Q

when does lactic acid formation occur

A

when sufficient oxygen is not available.

114
Q

How does lactic acid formation take place

A

The pyruvic acid that was formed during glycolysis gets reduced to lactic acid, and NADH gets oxidized back to NAD+ so glycolysis can continue.

115
Q

where does lactic acid get sent

A

lactic acid gets sent to the liver where it can be converted back into pyruvic acid

116
Q

is lactic acid formation efficient?

A

It is an inefficient pathway because most of the energy in glucose remains in lactic acid, which can be toxic in large quantities.

117
Q

why does lactic acid formation occur?

A

to keep glycolysis going

118
Q

why does the Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A take place

A

to get ready for Krebs cycle

119
Q

when does the Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A take place

A

When oxygen is available

120
Q

How does the Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A take place

A
  • each pyruvic acid that was produced by glycolysis is transported into a mitochondrion.
  • A molecule of carbon dioxide is removed from each molecule of pyruvic acid and NAD+ removes electrons and hydrogen ions to form a pair of two-carbon acetyl groups and two molecules of NADH.
  • The acetyl group binds to coenzyme A, forming acetyl coenzyme A, which enters the Krebs cycle.
121
Q

where does the Krebs cycle take place

A

in the matrix of a mitochondrion

122
Q

when does the krebs cycle take place

A

when oxygen is available

123
Q

why does the krebs cycle take place

A

eleases more of the energy that was available in a molecule of glucose

124
Q

How does the krebs cycle take place

A
  • each of the two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A that enters the Krebs cycle gets oxidized to produce two molecules of carbon dioxide
  • two molecules of ATP are produced
  • six molecules of NADH are generated to carry high-energy electrons
  • two molecules of FADH2 are generated to carry high-energy electron
125
Q

where does the electron transport chain take place

A

along the inner membrane of a mitochondrion

126
Q

when does the electron transport chain take place

A

when oxygen is available

127
Q

why does the electron transport chain take place

A

completes the release of energy that was stored in a glucose molecule

128
Q

How does the electron transport chain take place

A
  • NADH and FADH2 transfer electrons and hydrogen ions to carriers to make ATP
  • oxygen takes low-energy electrons and combines with hydrogen ions to form water
129
Q

what is The net energy yield from oxidizing one molecule of glucose

A

36 molecules of ATP.

130
Q

what percentage of the energy stored in glucose has been converted to ATP.

A

Approximately 40%

131
Q

the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration ( low solute concentration) to a region of lower water concentration (High solute concentration)

A

Osmosis

132
Q

Osmotic potential

A

the tendency for one aqueous solution to gain water from another aqueous solution when the two solutions are separated from one another by a selectively permeable membrane.

133
Q

osmolarity

A

the number of moles of particles that are dissolved in a liter of solution

134
Q

the force that blocks the flow of water across a membrane.

A

Osmotic pressure

135
Q

the ability of a solution to affect fluid volume and pressure in a cell.

A

Tonicity

136
Q

isotonic

A

two solutions are isotonic if their solute concentrations are on both sides of the membrane

137
Q

hypertonic

A

one solution is hypertonic to another solution if its solute concentration is higher than the solute concentration of the solution on the other side of the membrane

138
Q

crenation

A

Cells placed into a hypertonic solution will undergo crenation (shrivel)

139
Q

hypotonic

A

one solution is hypotonic to another solution if its solute concentration is lower than the solute concentration of the solution on the other side of the membrane

140
Q

lysis

A

Cells placed into a hypotonic solution will undergo lysis (bursts)

141
Q

follows a gradient across a membrane

A

passive movement

142
Q

created by difference in chemical concentration on opposite sides of membrane

A

Concentration gradient

143
Q

established by difference in distribution of positive and negative charges on opposite sides of membrane

A

Electrical gradient

144
Q

describes the movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached

A

Diffusion

145
Q

does not require a membrane ( it can occur with one though)

A

Diffusion

146
Q

uses carrier proteins to move molecules across a membrane that might be too large or too polar.

A

Carrier-mediated transport

147
Q

uniporters

A

carry a single substance across a membrane

148
Q

symporters

A

carry two or more substances simultaneously across a membrane in the same direction

149
Q

antiporters

A

carry two or more substances simultaneously across a membrane in opposite directions (sodium/potassium pump)

150
Q

describes the transport of molecules along a concentration gradient.
a molecule attaches to a carrier, which changes shape to move the molecule across the membrane

A

Facilitated diffusion

151
Q

uses ATP energy to move particles across a membrane against a concentration gradient, from region of low concentration to region of higher concentration.

A

Active transport

152
Q

ATP energy changes the shape of a carrier protein causing it to “pump” a substance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient.

A

primary active transport

153
Q

energy is stored in a concentration gradient and used to “drive” other substances across a membrane against their own concentration gradient.

A

secondary active transport

154
Q

transcytosis

A

transport substances within a cell

155
Q

endocytosis

A

bring substances into cell from the extracellular fluid

156
Q

exocytosis

A

release substances from cell into the extracellular fluid

157
Q

phagocytosis

A

‘cell eating’ is the process of engulfing large particles by special phagocytic cells

158
Q

pinocytosis

A

‘cell drinking’ engulfs droplets of extracellular fluid (ecf) that contain dissolved solutes

159
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

enables a cell to take in specific molecules without engulfing very much extracellular fluid

160
Q

Prokaryotes

A

simple cells that lack a distinct nucleus.

161
Q

Eukaryotes

A

larger, more complex cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

162
Q

glycocalyx

A

a carbohydrate coating that covers the membrane.

163
Q

Microvilli

A

extensions of the membrane that increase the surface area of a cell.

164
Q

Cilia

A

short, hair-like projections that protrude from the surface of a cell and they are composed of thin protein microtubules.

165
Q

Flagella

A

long, whip-like projections from a cell that move the entire cell (sperm) from one place to another

BIOL 214 (4 decks)

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