Exam 1 Flashcards
medial
closer to midline
lateral
farther from midline
anterior
toward the front
posterior
toward the back
superior
above
inferior
below
superficial
near bodies surface
deep
internal
proximal
closer to attachment of the limb to trunk of body
distal
farther from the attachment of the limb to trunk of body
ventral
closer to belly
dorsal
closer to back
cranial
closer to head
caudal
closer to tip of the tail
microevolution
change in frequencies of alleles within a population
genetic drift
random changes in allele freq. in population because of random sampling of organisms
gene flow
movement of genes between populations
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) assumptions
- infinite pop. size
- no mutation
- no gene flow
- no natural selection
- random mating
HWE
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
HWE: genotype and allele frequencies
freq. of dominant allele (E): p
freq. of recessive allele (e): q
homozygous dominant (EE): p^2 heterozygous (Ee): 2pq homozygous recessive (ee): q^2
Six distinguishing features of hominims
- bipedalism
- non-honing canines
- material culture and tools
- speech
- hunting
- domesticated foods
hominim
all human ancestors since split with chimps
primatology
disease ecology, learned transmitted behavior, conservations
prokaryote
1 cell
eukaryote
many cells
somatic cells
body cells
gametes
sex cells
DNA structure
phosphate - sugar - bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine)
Mitosis
produces diploid, for growth and repair of cells
Meiosis
produces haploid
diploid
2 copies of each chromosome
haploid
1 copy of each chromosome
gene linkage
closer genes are on chromosome, higher likelihood they will cross over together
allele
form of a gene
haplotypes
alleles likely to be inherited together based on strength of linkage
Four fields of Anthropology
Cultural
Archaeology
Linguistic
Physical/Biological
Branches of Bio anthropology
forensic genetics human biology paleoanthropology primatology
Distinguishing features of Hominins
Bipedalism Non-honing canines Material culture and tools Speech Hunting Domesticated foods
Linneaus
taxonomy and binomial nomenclature - classification of humans based on geography, customs and skin color
Cuvier
father of paleontology
Catastrophism - theory that all geo change occurs suddenly
Immutability of species - no evolutionary changes
Lamarck
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Lyell
embraced antiquity of the earth
uniformitarianism - same gradual process that shapes earth today operated in the past
Malthus
political economist
gave Darwin the idea of a struggle for survival
modes of production provide finite resources that lead to a point of crisis
Blumenbach
father of biological anthropology
monogenist
craniometrics - measured craniums of humans, 5 groupings.
Darwin
galapagos islands - tortoises and finches
Adaptive Radiation - diversification of one species into multiple species
Natural Selection
Wallace
independently arrived at similar conclusions as Darwin
Wallace’s Line - Sunda shelf (agnatic species) and Sahul shelf (polynesian species)
evolution
a change in population in the frequency of a trait or gene from one generation to the next
Natural Selection preconditions
inheritance, variation, and environmental pressure
Mutation
only new source of variation; increases variation in populations results on the success of the outcome vary (can be good or bad)
Natural Selection
those organisms best adapted to their environment will survive, thrive, and reproduce
Genetic Drift
random changes in allele frequency, reduces within population diversity; increase between population variation. greater impact on small, isolated populations.
Founders effects
allele frequency in an isolated population are greatly affected by the alleles their ancestors brought into the population
population bottleneck
due to some stochastic event, a portion of the population dies off
gene flow
movement of genes between populations
increases within population variation
decreases variation between populations
Microevolution
occurs within a single population
Macroevolution
happens on a scale that transcends a single species
Prokaryotes
1 cell
Eukaryote
many cels
Somatic cells
body cells
Gametes
sex cells
Diploid
2 copies of each chromosome, 46 chromes.
Haploid
1 copy of each chrome. 23 chromes.
Allele
form of a gene
gene linkage
based on location on the chromosome - closer together on chromosome means they have higher gene linkage
haplotypes
alleles likely to be inherited together base on the strength of their linkage
Mitochondria DNA
Inherited from the mother
Nucleotide bases
adenine - thymine
cytosine - guanine
karyotype
all chromosomes into a diagram, shows all the pairs and the X or Y chromosomes
Mitosis
for growth and repair of cells
two identical diploid cells with 46 chromosomes each
Meiosis
produces haploid gametes
results in unique daughter cells due to cross over and recombination
Process of DNA replication
DNA unzips to form template - nucleotide bonds break between bases: 2 parental strands - templates plus nucleotides equal daughters: free floating nucleotides match up to the template
Protein Synthesis process
transcription - in nucleus, section of DNA opens, mRNA creates strand and moves out of nucleus
translation - in cytoplasm, mRNA binds to ribosome, ribosome translates and tRNA attaches amino acids together forming a polypeptide chain, this completed chain is a protein
three types of genes
structural
regulatory
homeobox (hox) = regulate regional embryonic development (spine development different in snakes then humans)
Gregor Mendel
pea experiments
Mendelian traits: simple traits, 1 gene, two alleles, trait has 2 forms
Principle of of segregation
within a pair of alleles which specific allele is passed on, is random
Principle of independent assortment
alleles for different traits are transmitted to the gametes independently of one another
homozygous genotype
same alleles TT or tt
heterozygous genotype
different alleles, Tt
Autosomal recessive conditions
Cystic Fibrosis (damages lungs and digestive system Tay Sachs (death in childhood from lipid accumulation in brain) Albinism
Autosomal dominant conditions
Marfan syndrome (Ab lincoln) Achondroplastic dwarfism (little people big world) Polydactyly (lots of fingers or toes)
Sex-Linked conditions
X-linked: hemophilia (blood clotting disorder), colorblindness (males usually)
Complex traits
polygenic - many genes make up a trait
Heritability Quotient
variation caused by genetics/ (genetic variation + environmental variation)
Genotype
alleles present
Phenotype
outward expression
Modes of speciation
Cladogenesis - happens when a geographic boundary is introduced within a population (african rivers and chimps - separation of eastern chimps and bonobos)
Anagenesis - time & environmental change
Cases of selection
stabilizing (selection against extremes, birth weight)
directional (hominid brain size)
sexual (breeding patterns can conflict with natural selection, preferential traits to mates)
Handicap principle
some preferential traits for matting are non beneficial for survival.
Founders Effect
allele frequency in an isolated population greatly affected by alleles ancestors brought in
Population Bottleneck
due to some stochastic event, a portion of the population dies off
Race as biological classification
what criteria do you use to classify by? how many divisions do you make? discordant variation (no groups of traits that go together)
influences on human variation
Cultural
Physiological - non genetic changes within an individual
environmental - example, climate
Clinal Model
distance between populations to help explain similarities and differences
Acclimatization
occurs after a short exposure to a situation (shivering)
Adaptation
individual has been exposed to a condition their entire life; change usually occurs during growth
Lewis’ hunting phenomenon
physiological adaptation to cold stress, vasoconstriction/vasodilation. hot-cold-hot-cold hand experiment
Bergmanns’s rule
Average body size is larger in colder climate (short, stout)
More linear body shapes are better adapted to warmer climates
All related to surface area and volume, smaller surface area to volume ratio = lose heat less rapidly
Allen’s rule
colder climates = shorter appendages
warmer climates= longer appendages (bunnies)
Cephalic index
cranial breadth/cranial length
nasal index
nasal width/nasal height
cold enviro - tall and narrow
warm enviro - wide and short (taking in hot humid vs cold aired air)
Hypoxia adaptation
short term: increase in respiration
long term: RBC count increases, hemoglobin increases, weight loss
growth development: low birth weight, shorter, delayed menses, chest and lung growth broader
variance between populations in how they adapt: Quechua higher RBC while Ethiopia high hemoglobin and tibet high Carbon dioxide
BMR - Basal Metabolic Requirement
calories you need to just survive
TDEE - total Day Energy Expenditure
work, exercise, etc.
Macronutrients
chemical nutrients: fats, proteins, carbs etc.
Micronutrients
vitamins and minerals
Micronutrient deficiencies
B1 - Berberi (thiamine)
B3 - Pellagra (niacin) (when corn is main grain)
D - Rickets
C - Scurvy
Macronutrient deficiencies
Kwashiorkor (lack of protein)
Marasmus (lack of protein and calories)
Thrifty Gene Hypothesis
in times of food scarcity, advantageous to store excess nutrition.
Salt Shaker Curse for african americans
Wolff’s Law
bone grows in response to mechanical stress
bone can eat to lack of or increase in activity, changes shape of the bone
