exam 1 Flashcards
simple random sample
each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
simple random sample pros and cons
pros
gives best chance of unbiased representative sample
cons
time consuming, difficult to achieve truly random sample
stratified random sample
population is divided into subcategories and selected in proportion that they occur in the population
stratified random sample pros and cons
pros
representative, can be generalized to general population
cons
proportion calculations are time consuming
purposive samples
investigator intentionally chooses participants based on certain characteristics
purposive sample pros and cons
pros
economical and time efficient
cons
selection bias can threaten internal and external validity
self-selection/volunteer
people self-select to participate
self-selection/volunteer pros and cons
pros
convenient, quick, easy
cons
non representative, volunteer bias causes threats to validity because differences in participants may underlie in results
convenience sample
sample those who are available at the time
convenience sample pros and cons
pros
convenient, quick, economical
cons
non representative, volunteer bias and selection bias can threaten external and internal validity
downside of convenience sample
selection bias
cross-sectional method
surveys that obtain data from respondents at one point in time. not for long periods of time.
longitudinal method
same group of participants observed/measured/tested over time
single blinded study
participant does not know whether they have received treatment or placebo
double blinded study
investigator and participant do not know whether they have received treatment or placebo
expectancy effect
may occur when participant’s expectation of a certain result affects the outcome of the experiment
confirmation bias
tendency to interpret evidence as confirmation of one’s preexisting beliefs
what is a drug?
any chemical entity or mixture of entities, other than those required for maintenance of normal health (like food), the administration of which alters biological function and possibly structure
difference between drug use and drug abuse
abuse depends on the relationship a person has with the drug like long-term dependency, must impact daily life
in 2024, ___% of the world’s adult population reported having used an illicit drug in the past year
5.6%
most commonly used illicit drugs
cannabis
opioids
amphetamines
(not including nicotine, caffeine, alcohol)
factors that influence a country’s drug use
policies, history, religion
the US consumes ___% of the world’s supply of illicit drugs
65%
why is drug use so high in the US?
American culture of a “quick fix” and the belief that we are independent enough to make our own decisions
age range with highest drug use
21-26
followed by 26-29
most widely used drug by teens
alcohol
most widely used illicit drug
cannabis
gender with highest illicit drug use
men
why are men more likely to use drugs than women?
sense of invulnerability, more impulsive, less averse to risk
race with lowest drug use rates
asians
race with highest rate of drug use
mixed race individuals
why are mixed race individuals more likely to use drugs
more pressure to fit in with either group, extra level of stress
education levels from lowest to highest drug use (4)
college grad
no high school
high school grad
college dropout
(less education is typically associated with more drug use)
every year, approximately ____ individuals die from properly prescribed and administered drugs
128,000
problems with acute drug use (4)
impurities in drug, problematic routes of administration, overdose, legal consequences
problems with chronic drug use (3)
same as acute, chronic health problems, problems with relationships/finances/work
illegal drugs
against the law
illicit drugs
against its intended use (non-medical use of prescription drugs, underage drinking)
recreational drugs
psychoactive substances taken for non-medical purposes (legal or illegal)
endogenous substances
produced and secreted within the body
example of endogenous substances
endorphins, anandamide
exogenous substances
naturally occurring from bacteria, fungi, plants, animals
examples of exogenous substances
cannabis, penicillin, psilocybin
examples of lab purified/synthesized exogenous substances
cocaine, morphine
synthetic drugs
created in a lab
examples of synthetic drugs
fentanyl, MDMA
chemical name
describes the molecular structure of the drug
generic name
official, nonproprietary designation, not capitalized
trade name
proprietary, chosen by the company that manufactured the drug, capitalized
average pharmaceutical cost per year per person in US vs other country average
$1,026 vs $515
controlled substances act of 1970
repealed, replaced, and consolidated all previous federal drug laws
created the five schedules of drugs
misdemeanor
less than one year behind bars
felony
more than one year behind bars
possession
knowingly and intentionally
trafficking
manufacture, import, distribution
conspiracy
unlawful agreement to commit a drug crime
penalties for drug offenses depend on (4)
which crime, which drug, quantities involved, first/repeated offense
what do harm reduction policies aim to do? (3)
reduce health risks associated with drug use
reduce prison overcrowding
focus on treatment instead of punishment
legally intoxicated BAC
0.08%
neurons
cells that receive and send signals throughout the body
sensory neurons
carry information into brain and spinal cord
motor nuerons
transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord out to muscles, nerves, and glands
neurogenesis
production of new neurons
neurogenesis enhancers and inhibitors
enhance: learning, physical exercise
inhibit: stress
neuroglia
nerve cells that support neurons and aid in neurotransmission
soma/cell body
contains nucleus, contains neurons machinery that keeps it functioning
axon
carries electrical signals
myelin sheath
covers axons to insulate and speed electrical transmission
electrical signals travel down axon to ____
axon terminal
axon terminal
neurotransmitters stores in vesicles, releases neurotransmitters into synapse, neurotransmitters bind to receptors located on dendrites of postsynaptic neuron
synapse
space between neurons
dendrites
main receptive surface of neurons
action potential
information travels down axon as a change in voltage for a brief time
the inside of the neuron becomes more positively charged compared to the outside (depolarized)
when the action potential reaches the axon terminal, _______
neurotransmitter is released into the synapse
effects at the postsynaptic receptors are terminated by (3)
reuptake, enzymatic degragation, diffusion
peripheral nervous system
all nerves going to and from the brain and spinal cord
two components of peripheral nervous system
somatic and autonomic nervous systems
somatic nervous system function (2)
neurons that carry sensory information into the CNS
neurons that carry motor signals from CNS to skeletal muscle cells
autonomic nervous system
neurons that carry information to or from heart muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
autonomic nervous system is divided into
sympathetic nervous system
parasympathetic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight response
parasympathetic nervous system
business as usual, rest and digest
central nervous system
forebrain/cerebrum, midbrain, hindbrain
cerebral cortex (4)
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes
frontal lobe function
planning, programming, speech, initiating voluntary movement
parietal lobe function
somatosensory area, abstract concepts
temporal lobe function
hearing and memory
occipital lobe
vision
limbic system function
emotions and memory
protection of the CNS (4)
bony skull and vertebrae, cerebrospinal fluid, 3 layers of meninges, blood brain barrier
blood brain barrier
specialized capillaries of the CNS that prevent entry of certain substances
nuerotransmitters
chemicals released from the axon terminal of one neuron and bind to receptors of another cell
major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain
GABA
major excitatory neurotransmitter of the brain
glutamate
glutamate is involved in (4)
sensory signals
brain excitability
learning
memory
drugs that affect GABA (3)
barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol
drugs that affect glutamate (3)
PCP, ketamine, alcohol
effect of serotonin
modulates raw information and gives it emotional tone, regulation of bodily functions (sleep, arousal, appetite, mood, sexual activity, nausea, bodily temperature, pain response, gastrointestinal function)
most common neurotransmitter in the brain
acetylcholine
locations of acetylcholine (3)
nueromuscular junction
autonomic nervous system
brain areas relating to learning, memory, motor function, sleep
drugs that affect acetylcholine (3)
nicotine, atropine, curare
endogenous opioids
endorphins
exogenous opioids
morphine, codeine, heroin
factors of pharmacokinetics (4)
absorption
distribution
transformation/metabolism
excretion
absorption
the process by which drugs pass from the external world into the bloodstream
factors that affect absorption (3)
dosage
route of administration
solubility
dosage
the dose of a drug will influence the affect it has on the body
appropriate dosage depends on (5)
nature of drug, body weight, prior experience with drug, age, overall health
routes of administration to bloodstream (7)
oral
rectal
sublingual
intranasal
transdermal
inhalation
injection
distribution
once absorbed into bloodstream, drug is distributed throughout the body
body parts with highest concentration of the drug will be
parts that receive the most blood (liver, kidney, heart, lungs, brain)
drug depot
area of the body that can accumulate and store a drug, but where no significant biological effect of the drug occurs
barriers to distribution
blood brain barrier
ineffective: placenta
metabolism
process by which the body accepts the drug, alters it chemically, and prepares for excretion
most important organ for metabolism
liver
factors that influence the rate of metabolism (7)
genetics
body size
age
time of day
sex
drug interactions
environment
elimination/excretion happens through
GI tract, sweat, saliva, breast milk
most important organ for elimination
kidney
pharmacodynamics
study of the ways a drug exerts its effects
receptors
specialized proteins located on the surface of or within a cell
ligand
substance that binds to a receptor, when it bends it produces a physical change in the shape of the protein which initiates a series of events (like a key in a lock, may decrease or increase actions)
types of receptors
endogenous neurotransmitter, inotropic, metabotropic
endogenous neurotransmitter
if the body contains a specific receptor for a substance, there must be a natural form of the substance
endogenous neurotransmitters examples
morphine/endogenous opioid receptors
cannabis/cannabinoid receptors
ionotropic receptor
receptor molecule itself is also an ion channel, fast/direct
metabotropic receptor
receptor and ion channel are two separate molecules, slow/indirect
ways substances bind to receptors
agonist, antagonist
agonist
mimic the effects (either inhibitory or excitatory) of a neurotransmitter
direct agonist
fit directly into the receptor
indirect agonist
may work indirectly by increasing the amount of neurotransmitter (affecting release, reuptake)
full agonist
bind and produce maximal effect
partial agonist
bind and partially activate a receptor
inverse agonist
substances that bind to the main receptor site and produce the opposite effects that an agonist does
allosteric modulator
substances that bind to alternate sites on the receptor and influence the binding of agonists to the main receptor site
antagonist
does not itself cause a response, instead it prevents neurotransmitter from having its effect
direct antagonist
fit directly into the receptor and block it
set
a person expectations about what a drug will do, can have a powerful effect on the drug’s actions
placebo
a pharmacologically inert substance that can elicit a significant therapeutic response
factors that can affect placebo response (5)
genetics
neuroanatomy
experiences and expectations
personality
way the drug is presented
setting
the setting in which a drug is presented can greatly influence a person’s drug experience
side effects
pharmacological actions that occur in addition to the main action, not all are necessarily bad or dangerous
dose-response curve
measures the magnitude of a drug’s effect as a function of the dose
potency
the lower the dose necessary to produce the desired effect, the more potent the drug
efficacy
the maximum effect that can be produced by the drug
therapeutic index and margin of safety
measures the safety of the drug
the lower they are, the more dangerous the drug
pharmacokinetic drug interactions
when one drug alters the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another
pharmacodynamic drug interactions
when one drug alters the pharmacological effect of another, usually at the receptor site
tolerance
when more drug is needed to produce the same desired response
acute tolerance
can occur with a single exposure to a drug
metabolic tolerance
repeated use of a drug can cause body to speed up the metabolism of the drug
cellular tolerance
with chronic use, receptors in the brain adapt to the compound presence of the drug
behavioral tolerance
learning how to “handle yourself” while on a drug
cross tolerance
tolerance of one drug reduces the effectiveness of another drug with a similar mechanism of action
reverse tolerance
increased reaction to a drug following its repeated use
select tolerance
brain will reduce some of the effects a substance produces but not all of them
withdrawal
physical symptoms due to an abrupt discontinuation of a chronically used drug, usually the opposite of the direct effects of the drug
fastest route of administration
intravenous
blood brain barrier capillary structure
prohibits water-soluble substances from entering the brain, but allows fat-soluble substances to cross
hardly any pores, so no large molecules
best route of administration depends on (3)
characteristics of the drug, goals of administration, specific circumstances
critical thinking
thinking about your thinking while you’re thinking in order to make your thinking better
fallacies of relevance
arguments that are irrelevant to the matter at hand
fallacies of insufficient evidence
arguments that do not provide sufficient or appropriate evidence to support themselves
what are the drug schedules based on? (3)
potential for abuse, medical benefits, likelihood for producing physical or psychological dependence
schedule I
most potential for abuse, no medicinal qualities
schedule II
high potential for abuse, some medicinal qualities
schedule III
moderate potential for abuse, acceptable medicinal qualities (with prescription required)
schedule IV
low potential for abuse, acceptable medicinal qualities (fewer refill regulations for prescriptions)
schedule V
lowest potential for abuse, acceptable medicinal qualities (prescription required with fewest refill regulations)
heroin schedule
1
LSD schedule
1
ecstasy schedule
1
Vicodin schedule
2
cocaine schedule
2
meth schedule
2
oxycontin schedule
2
adderall schedule
2
Tylenol with codeine schedule
3
ketamine schedule
3
steroids schedule
3
testosterone schedule
3
xanax schedule
4
Darvon schedule
4
valium schedule
4
ambien schedule
4
robitussin schedule
5
lomotil schedule
5
Lyrica schedule
5
Cannabis schedule
1
first pass effect
phenomenon by which orally administered drugs are metabolized by liver enzymes before they reach the general bloodstream (usually reduces bioavailability)
