EXAM 1 Flashcards
Anatomical Position
Reference Position
Standing
Facing straight ahead
Feet together
Palms forwards (forearms are supinated)
Elbows & knees straight (extended)
Unless specified, all location descriptions will be from the Anatomical Position
What is Applied Anatomy?
Forms basis for health sciences
Teach others how to strengthen and improve function of joints, muscles, and bones
Maintain optimal function
Prevent Injury
Improve health literacy and patient outcomes
Fundamental Position
Like anatomical position but palms are inward to the body
More natural
Prone
Lying face down (Anterior side down)
Supine
Lying face up (anterior side up)
Plane
2-dimensional surface defined by 3 noncolinear points
3 things moving on same area
Axis
Imaginary line about which rotation occurs
Axis passes through a joint
Motion occurs “in a plane” and “about an axis”
Axis and plane are always perpendicular to each other
Sagittal Plane
Splits the body into right and left halves
Does not have to be equal
Mediolateral Axis
Sagittal Plane Movements
Rotations about the mediolateral
EXAMPLE: Flexion and extension of the elbow and knee joints
Frontal Plane
Splits the body into front and back halves
Think front and back halves
Anteroposterior Axis
Frontal Plane Movements
Rotations occur about an anteroposterior (AP) axis
EXAMPLE: Abduction and Adduction of the hip and shoulder joints
Jumping jacks
Transverse Plane Movements
Rotations occur about a superoinferior or longitudinal axis
EXAMPLE: Internal rotation and external rotation of the hip and shoulder joints
Diagonal (Oblique) Planes
EXAMPLES: Hitting a tennis ball
Kicking a field goal
Transverse Plane
Splits the body into top and bottom halves
Tend to see rotational movements
Superoinferior axis
Form
The shape of something; anatomical structure; morphology
EXAMPLE: The femur has a long and skinny shaft and wide, round protrusions on either end
FORM INFLUENCES FUNCTION
Function
How something works/moves
How something doesn’t works/moves
EXAMPLE: The femur often supports the body’s weight
The skull protects brain, skull has sutures to have a little bit of give when hit
Form Influences Function
The round head of the femur allows the hip joint to move in many directions
Ball and socket joints have loads of range of motion
Function often means movement or lack of
Function Influences Form Example
EXAMPLE: A weightlifting program can increase the size (and strength) of a muscle
Bed rest (lack of normal function) can decrease the size (and strength) of a muscle
Stability v. Mobility
Trade off between
EXAMPLE: Hip is more stable with less mobility because it holds the whole body up compared to a shoulder that is less stable and more mobility
Degrees of Freedom
Quantify mobility-stability relationship
1 DoF=A joint’s ability to move in 1 plane
EXAMPLE: The shoulder joint has 3 degrees of freedom because it can move in all 3 planes of motion
Ranges from 0 to 3
Anterior (Ventral)
Front side
Posterior (Dorsal)
Back side
Superior (Cephalic-towards head or supra)
Above or higher than another structure
Inferior (Caudal-Towards the tail or infra)
Below or lower than another structure
Medial
Closer to the midline
Lateral
Away from the midline
Proximal (EXTREMITIES)
Closer to point of attachment on the trunk
Distal (EXTREMITIES)
Farther from the point of attachment on the trunk
Superficial
Closer to the surface
Existing or occurring at or on the surface
Deep
Farther from the surface
Ipsilateral
Of the same side
Contralateral
Of the opposite side
Unilateral
One side
Often used to describe muscle contraction, but can also describe movements
Bilateral
Two sides (both)
Often used to describe muscle contraction, but can also describe movements
Body Regions
Often used to name joints, specific bony landmarks, ligaments, and muscles
Flexion
Angle of joint is shortening
Extension
Angle of joint is lengthening
Abduction
Away from body
Adduction
Towards body
Pronation
Going to prone
Supination
Going to supine
Inversion
Internal motion of ankle
Eversion
External motion of ankle
Plantarflexion
Downward motion of the ankle
Dorsiflexion
Upward motion of the ankle
Depression
Downward movement of the scapula
Elevation
Upward movement of the scapula
Circumduction
Full circle of a joint
What is biomechanics?
How living things move
5 Subdisciplines of Mechanics
Rigid Body Mechanics
Deformable Body Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics
Relativistic Mechanics
What 2 categories can rigid body mechanics be split into?
Static Movements
Dynamic Movements
What is static movement?
Object is still or not in motion
Static Stretching
When should static stretching be done?
Used for after practice because it relaxes and increases range of motion
Sometimes good for before workout just to make someone feel better
What is dynamic movement?
Moving objects
Dynamic Stretching
Can be split into kinematics and kinetics
Kinematic descriptions of motion are?
Linear: Rectilinear & curvilinear
Angular
General: Linear & Angular
Kinematics Rectilinear
A straight line
Kinematics Curvilinear
Throwing motion
A curve to it
Kinematics Angular Motion
All points on an object rotate around a fixed point
Kinetics
The study of forces and the effects of those forces
Unit of measurement is a Newton
Force is defined as a push or a pull
Kinetics Internal vs External
Internal: Within ourselves
External: Outside our body
What is an example of an internal force?
Bicep curl
Internal: Contraction of bicep and tricep
External: dumbbell and gravity
What is an example of an external force?
Wall sit
Internal: Contraction of quads and glutes
External: gravity or weights
What is a simple machine?
A device or tool that improves the efficiency of a force
The body is simple machine
Bones and joints of the human body act as levers, pulleys, and wheels and axles
What is a lever
A rigid segment that rotates about a fixed axis
1st, 2nd, and 3rd class levers
1st class lever
Axis of rotation is between the force and resistance
Seesaw
DOWN effort force-axis-DOWN resistance force
EX: Head nodding
2nd class lever
The resistance is between the force and axis of rotation
Wheel barrow
Axis-DOWN resistance force-UP effort force
EX: Calf raises
3rd class lever
The force is between the axis and resistance
Axis-UP effort force-DOWN resistance force
EX: Bicep curl
What are mechanical loads?
Load forces can be classified into 2 categories:
Uniaxial loads-Loads that are applied in one direction (our bodies handle this the best)
Multiaxial loads- the direction of forces is different to each other
Types of mechanical loads are
Unloaded
Tension
Compression
Shear
Bending
Torsion
Combined (Torsion and compression)
Mechanical Load UNLOADED
Laying down
Minimal loaded=sitting/standing
No load
Mechanical Load TENSION
Stretching
Anything pull down working out
Pull UP-body-Pull DOWN
Mechanical Load Compression
Barbell Squat
Push DOWN-body-Push UP
Mechanical Load Sheer
Cutting in soccer
Force left-body-Force right
Mechanical Load Bending
V ups
Curving into self
Mechanical Load Torsion
Golf or baseball swing
Twisting motion
Mechanical Load Combined
Bar twists
How many bones in the body?
206 (usually)
Start with 300 non-calcified bones
When do bones fully develop and start to lose
Fully develop and calcify until about 20
Bone loss starts to occur around 30
What is bone?
Considered hard tissue due to its density and rigidity
Main storage of calcium in the body
What 5 major parts makes up bones?
Calcium carbonate
calcium phosphate
proteins
water
and other small amounts of minerals
What happens when there is a calcium shortage?
Our body will pull from our bones
5 Main Functions of skeletal system
Lever system
Attachment for muscle
Protection
Mineral homeostasis and storage
Hematopoiesis
What is the most common lever in the body?
3rd class lever system
Bone Regions are
Axial Skeleton: Skull, ribs, and spinal cord
Appendicular Skeleton: Arms and legs
TEST QUESTION EXAMPLE:
What part of the skeleton is the pevis?
Appendicular skeleton
How much force is being applied to the body when walking?
About 1.5 - 3 times your body weight
How much force is being applied to body when running?
About 3-4 times body weight
How much force is being applied when jumping?
5-7 times body weight
What is in cortical bone?
Cortical bone (compact bone): Dense and forms the outer layer of bone
Can take a lot of stress
Thickness varies from bone to bone depending on location and function
Really good at handling compression
What is in cancellous bone?
Cancellous bone (spongy bone): Very porous and allows bone to be a bit flexible
Usually found in the axial skeleton and the pelvis
Does not do compression but does well with tension
Builds back faster than cortical bone due to it not being as dense
Yellow bone within-Yellow from fat
What is osteoblast?
Forms bone extracellular matrix
Makes new bone cells
From bone cell lineage
What is Osteocyte?
Maintains bone tissue
Happy resting bone cell
From bone cell lineage
What is osteoclast?
Functions in resorption, the breakdown of bone extracellular matrix
Breaking down bone
From white blood cell lineage
When osteoclasts outnumber osteoblasts?
Osteoporosis will occur
Deterioration of the bone
When osteoblasts outnumber osteoclasts?
Excess build up of bone matrix
What is a long bone?
Long in shape, bony protrusions on the ends, slender middle section
Primarily in the appendicular skeleton
Provide structure and lever system for movement
Epiphyseal plate (growth plate) is the transition between two parts
What is a short bone?
Smaller irregular shape (often cuboidal) with rounded edges
Typically articulate with more than 1 other bone
Allow for forces to be transmitted through the joint to absorb forces
Gliding joints
What is a flat bone?
Flat in shape with broad, curved surfaces
Shapes vary quite a bit but still overall flat
Mainly attachment sites for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
Large attachment spot for muscles
What is a irregular bone?
Unique shape and functions so put into a category of their own
What is a sesamoid bone?
Usually small and rounded
EX: Knee cap
What is a synarthrodial joint?
Least mobile and most stable
Once a person reaches adolescence, fuse and become immovable
EX: Skull
What is a amphiarthrodial joint?
Slight movement available in order to absorb shock and transmit forces
Very stable joints
EX: Pregnant women produce relaxation to soften pubic
What is a diarthrodial joint?
Most mobile and least stable
Often called synovial joints due to joint capsule containing synovial fluid allowing for lubrication, nutrients, and waste removal
What are some diarthrodial (synovial) joints?
Pivot joint
Hinge Joint
Saddle Joint
Condyloid Joint
Plane Joint
Ball and Socket Joint
Endochondral Ossification Bone growth is what?
Endo- Inner / within
chondral- relating to cartilage
Full bone formation does not occur until about age 20
This is the process that leads to bone formation from cartilage
Intermembranous ossification bone growth is what?
Inter- between / among
membranous- made of a membrane and somewhat transparent
Start from embryonic membrane rather than cartilage
Flat bones are formed in this manner
Called ‘woven bone’
What is Wolff’s Law of Functional Adaptation?
Once the epiphyseal plate closes, the bone will no longer lengthen but does not mean dormant
Bones are always remodeling and repairing themselves
Typically remodeling takes anywhere from 3 to 6 months
What happens to the skeletal system during extended bed rest?
Down regulation occurs on the bone
What are bone markings?
Can help you understand attachment types and sites
Can be classified into 2 types: Processes (protrusions) and Cavities (depression)
What is cartilage? Soft tissues of skeletal system
A tissue that is dense but is less dense than bone
2 types: Articular and fibrocartilage
What is articular cartilage? Soft tissues of skeletal system
Can be found on articulating surfaces- articular-relating to joints
Typically found at the epiphyses of long bones
Primary purpose is to help joints move smoothly and absorb shock and sheer
No direct blood supply
Synovial fluid helps move smoothly and reduces friction
What happens if articular cartilage is damaged? soft tissues of skeletal system
It cannot be healed. Synovial fluid needs to move around to keep it healthy
What is fibrocartilage? soft tissues of skeletal system
Very dense and provides structural support to joints
EX: Labrum (shoulder), acetabulum (hip) and meniscus (knee)
Increases surface area of the bones to increase joint stability
Little to no blood supply so difficult to heal
What is a ligament? Soft tissues of skeletal system
Dense connective tissue
Connect bone to bone
Little blood supply so can heal but not quickly
EX: ACL
What is a tendon? Soft tissues of skeletal system
Dense connective tissue with a but more stretch than ligaments
Connect muscle to bone
Tendons are an extension of muscle tissue coverings
What is a fascia? Soft tissues of skeletal system
Fibrous connective tissue that does not flex much
Primary function is to hold soft tissues together
EX: Retinaculum runs perpendicular to tendons acting like a seatbelt
What is a synovial joint capsule? Soft tissues of skeletal system
Only found in synovial (diarthrodial) joints
Joints are surrounded by a capsule that contains synovial fluid providing stability and cushion for the joint
Movement depends on the concentration of collagen and elastin which can vary quite a bit
More elastin can be hypermobile
Unstable
Why study muscles?
Account for about half of your body weight
Over 650 muscles in the human body
Most common missing muscle is the palmaris longus (about 60% of population)
After 65, there is a massive increase in muscle loss
MALES vs Females Muscles
Males tend to have faster contractile properties and a higher capacity for anaerobic metabolism
Which means that males can generate more maximal power than females
Exercise tends to thwart atrophy more effectively in men than women in older ages >65
Male vs FEMALE Muscles
Females muscles are more fatigue resistant so are better suited for longer duration activities
Women are more susceptible to disuse atrophy than men
MALES vs FEMALES Muscles
Both start to lose about 3-5% of their muscle mass per decade starting at 30
What are the types of muscles?
Smooth
Cardiac
Skeletal
What is a smooth muscle?
Around organs and involuntary movement
What is cardiac muscle?
Heart, similar in appearance to smooth but only found in the heart
Involuntary
What is skeletal muscle?
Moves skeleton
Voluntary
What is a muscle?
Mainly water and proteins
About 75% water
Take out water and is left about 18% protein
What is the smallest unit of a muscle?
Sarcomere
One sarcomere is defined Z-line to Z-line
Filled with myofiliments (actin and myosin)
Muscle fibers are what?
Several myofibrils bundled together surrounded by endomysium
Several muscle fibers bundled together are what?
Muscle fascicle surrounded by perimysium
Many more fascicles grouped make up what?
A whole muscle wrapped in epimysium
Smallest unit to whole muscle order is?
Myofiliments (actin and myosin)
Sarcomere
Myofibril
Muscle fiber
Fascicle
Muscle
Endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium does what?
Follows the length of the muscle and beyond the muscle forming the tendon
What is the sliding filament theory?
Most widely accepted theory on how and why muscles contract
Released first time in 1954
What are the muscle nomentclature?
Shape: rhomboid and trapezius
Size: Gluteus maximus vs minimus
Number of Divisions: How many heads does the muscle have? Bicep-2 tricep-3
Fiber orientation: Abdominal muscles Rectus abdominus- rectus=straight
Location: Infraspinatus- Infra=under, spinatus=spine, located under the spine of the scapula
Function: flexor digitorum- flexor=flexing, digitorum=digits
Parallel Muscles Architecture
Aligned in the same direction as the tendon, the whole length of the muscle unit, and other fibers in the muscle
They tend to be longer and allows them to shorten quite a bit
Good for speed
Pennate Muscles Architecture
Run at an angle to the tendon and are much shorter than their parallel counterpart
Less shortening capacity but allows for more fibers and more sarcomeres inside the fiber
3 types: Unipennate, bipennate, multipennate
Good for strength
Which fiber would be built for speed and which is mostly built for power?
Parallel is fast and stable
Multipennate is slower and power
What is anatomical cross sectional area
Measurement is what is reported in studies interested in how much muscle did a person gain
At midline of the muscle
Measurement of the largest portion of a muscle
What is physiological cross sectional area
Measurement will give a more accurate measure of how much force production is available from a muscle
Just a strong person
Measurement at perpendicular of the fibers regardless of tendon position
Lines of pull are?
Uniarticular: uni-1 articular-joint Is a muscle that only crosses one joint
Biarticular: bi-2 articular-joint Is a muscle that crosses 2 joints
Multiarticular: Multi-multiple articular-joint Is a muscle that crosses multiple joints
Eccentric muscle contraction
Muscle is lengthening (elongating)
Concentric muscle contraction
Muscle is shortening (contracting)
Work phase
Isometric muscle contraction
Muscle is static, no movement
Stability
Activating muscle contraction occurs how?
An alpha motor neuron sends a signal to the muscle to start and end contraction
An alpha motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates is known as a what?
Motor unit
Large vs small muscles
The number of muscle fibers that nerves can innervate varies from muscle to muscle
Smaller: used more for precise movement that have greater innervation ratio
Larger: used for more gross movements will have less innervation ratio
Motor unit recruitment is?
Increasing the number of neurons in a muscle to fire more of the muscle
More important for large gross movements
Rate coding is?
Improving the precision of the firing rate
More important for precision of movement
Motor Unit Recruitment Size Principle
Small motor units=low stimulus threshold
Larger motor units=higher stimulus threshold
Largest motor units=highest stimulus threshold
What is the all or nothing principle?
States that all the muscle fibers that are connected to a nerve will fire
EX: like a light switch, if its off it is off
Primary muscle for movement of action is?
Agonist
Antagonist has the role of what?
Opposite of the primary mover
Stabilizer of a joint associated with the primary movement but has no movement is what muscle?
Synergist
Optimal length of a muscle is called?
Optimal resting length
If a muscle is contracted too much and is no longer able to produce force is what?
Active insufficiency
Passive insufficiency is what?
A muscle is stretched too much and is not able to produce force
Proprioceptors allow for what?Proprioception
Muscles to contract at the appropriate time, with the appropriate force, and the appropriate muscles
Sense changes in muscle length and rate of strength and contact the muscle rapidly are what? Proprioception
Spindle fibers
Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs) Proprioception
Located in the tendons, these detect changes in muscle tension. If too much tension is sensed, the GTOs will deactivate the muscle to ensure no damage is caused by the excessive tension
Pacinian corpuscles is what?Proprioception
Located just below the skin around the joints
These detect rapid change to a joint angle and reports it to CNS
Located just below the skin mainly around the fingers. Like pacinian, they detect rapid change to a joint angle and reports it to CNS and are fine motor control are what?Proprioception
Ruffini’s Corpuscles
Why study movement analysis?
Running economy: How much energy it takes to run at a certain speed for a given amount of time
Running efficiency: The energy cost to generate that power
Improving running efficiency does what?
Can lower the cost to generate that power and instead put it into running economy
Increasing running economy does what?
Can run at a faster pace without changing their aerobic capacity
What is movement analysis?
An assessment of an individual’s movement
Can be as simple as picking up a pen or complex movements like throwing a ball or doing a complex lift
What is a discrete movement?
A movement with a clear beginning and end
Movement with no clear beginning or end
Continuous movement
