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Microbiology - BIO214 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Microbe

A

Microscopic organism (microorganism) ​

Requires microscope to see, invisible to the naked eye​

Single celled organisms​

For a long time, were the only lifeforms on Earth

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2
Q

Microbes include…

A

Bacteria​
Archaea​
Protozoa​
Fungi (yeast and mold)​
Algae​
Viruses (simple, non-cellular)​
(BAPFAV)

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3
Q

Disease

A

A condition that prevents the body from functioning normally​

Exhibits signs and symptoms (e.g. nausea) ​

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4
Q

Pathogen

A

a disease-causing microbe

Goal: survival and reproduction (NOT disease)

Want to find a way to spread to new hosts; therefore, they cause symptoms that will increase their chances of spreading to a new host

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5
Q

The human body contains ~ _ ____ body cells and ~
_ ____ bacterial cells

A

30 trillion

Bacterial cells are much smaller so it doesn’t look like we’re covered in germs

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6
Q

Most human bacteria live in …

A

the gut/GI tract

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7
Q

Human microbiota

A

the microbes that stably live in/on the human body

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8
Q

The microbiota contributes to human health

A

Bacteria in our intestines (e.g. E. coli) aid digestion and synthesize vitamins

Prevent pathogenic bacteria from colonizing; Good bacteria is there first and blocks bad bacteria

Our bodies become populated by microbes at birth; c-section vs vaginal birth affects microbes

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9
Q

The Human Microbiome Initiative

A

Launched in 2016

Research funding to expand our understanding of the role of microbes in ecosystems such as the human body

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10
Q

Nomenclature

A

System of naming organisms still in use today

Developed in 1735 by Carolus Linnaeus

Assigns each organism two names, both italicized (underlined when written)

Names often describe the organism, honor a researcher, or identify the habitat

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11
Q

Genus

A

First name in nomenclature
Capitalized + Italicized
Can be abbreviated by initial

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12
Q

Species

A

First name in nomenclature
Lowercase
Italicized

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13
Q

Bacteria

A

Unicellular

Prokaryotes – lack a nucleus (DNA not contained within membrane-bound organelle, floating around)

3 common cell shapes: bacillus rods, cocci spheres, spiral

Surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan

Reproduce asexually through binary fission

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14
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

Chains of sugars (glycans) linked together by amino acids (peptide)

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15
Q

Archea

A

Unicellular
Prokaryotes
Cell wall, but not composed of peptidoglycan
Extremophiles, so not encountered a bunch in our lives
Not known to cause disease
Asexual reproduction (Often binary fission or similar process)

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16
Q

Extremophile

A

found in extreme environments

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17
Q

Methanogens

A

produce methane, in GI tract

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18
Q

Halophiles

A

live in extremely salty environments (salt lakes, not just oceans)

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19
Q

Thermophiles

A

live in extremely hot environments (thermal vents in ocean, hot springs)

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20
Q

Fungi

A

Eukaryotes (DNA contained within a nuclear membrane)
Can be multi or unicellular
Cell wall, composed of chitin (polysaccharide; sugars linked together)
Include yeast and mold
Dimorphic fungi flip back and forth between existing as mold and yeast

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21
Q

Yeast

A

unicellular fungi, larger than bacteria

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22
Q

Mold

A

form multicellular structures (mycelia – network of hyphae)

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23
Q

Protozoa

A

Eukaryotes
No cell wall
Very diverse
Many move through using pseudopods, flagella, or cilia
Can be free-living or parasitic

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24
Q

Algae

A

Eukaryotes
Cell wall composed of cellulose (polysaccharide)
Photosynthetic
Require sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water
Produce energy, oxygen, and carbohydrates

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25
Q

Viruses

A

Acellular (lack cellular structure)
Very small (requires electron microscope, light microscope not sufficient)
Simple structure
Reproduce by using machinery of other organisms/cells; Don’t possess their own cellular machinery
Strictly parasites
Often considered not alive

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26
Q

What 2 things does it take to be a virus?

A
  1. Nucleic acid genome (either DNA or RNA)
  2. Protein coat – capsid (encloses genetic material)
    Optional: lipid membrane – envelope
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27
Q

Why are viruses often not considered to be alive?

A

No metabolism or cellular reactions
Host cell required for reproduction

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28
Q

Before microbes were discovered, all organisms were classified as….

A

plants or animals

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29
Q

Organic compounds

A

Compounds that contain at least 1 carbon-hydrogen bond (C-H)

Life wouldn’t be possible without organic compounds

Are vital to cells; Provide structure and perform functions

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30
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

compounds that lack C-H bonds

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31
Q

4 Types of Macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates (polysaccharide)
Lipids
Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)
Proteins

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32
Q

What is the defining characteristic of prokaryotic cells compared to eukaryotic cells?

A

lack of a nucleus

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33
Q

Which organisms have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan? Select all that apply.

A

Bacteria

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34
Q

The three domain model developed by Carl Woese in 1978 is widely accepted today. According to this model, what are the three domains?

A

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotes

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35
Q

Who was the first to describe “cells” in dead cork tissue?

A

Robert Hooke

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36
Q

What was the purpose of Pasteur’s swan-neck flask?

A

To prevent microbes in the air from reaching the sterile broth in the flask & To allow gases in the air to reach the sterile broth in the flask

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37
Q

Which of the following developed a set of postulates for determining whether a particular disease is caused by a particular pathogen?

A

Robert Koch

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38
Q

What observation prompted Edward Jenner to use cowpox lesions to vaccinate against smallpox?

A

Individuals that had developed cowpox rarely developed smallpox later in life

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39
Q

Alexander Fleming noticed that bacteria did not grow near mold that had contaminated an agar plate. What did the mold secrete into the media that inhibited bacterial growth?

A

antibiotic

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40
Q

Studying bacterial genomes:

A

Involves studying all genes found within a bacterial cell

Allows us to determine what a microbe is capable of without having to observe it directly

Shows us how microbes are related evolutionarily.

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41
Q

Which of the following is an infectious disease?

A

malaria

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42
Q

Which of the following molecules is classified as an organic compound?

A

Glucose (C6H1206)

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43
Q

What portion of a phospholipid is oriented toward the interior of a biological membrane?

A

The fatty acid chains

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44
Q

The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids linked together through __ bonds

A

Peptide

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45
Q

Which of the following macromolecules are encoded directly within DNA? (select all that apply)

A

Proteins

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46
Q

_______ are responsible for the base pairing between two strands of DNA.

A

Hydrogen bonds

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47
Q

The backbone of DNA is composed of (select all that apply)

A

Phosphate, Sugar

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48
Q

Why does the orientation of a DNA strand involve using the 3’ and 5’ designations?

A

To indicate the position of the carbons in the deoxyribose sugar of the nucleotide

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49
Q

Enzymes

A

proteins that catalyze reactions

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50
Q

____ is the genetic material for all cellular organisms

A

DNA

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51
Q

Koch’s Postulates

A

a set of 4 steps for linking a disease (i.e. illness) with the microbe responsible

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52
Q

Koch’s Postulate #1

A

The same microbe must be present in every individual with the disease (illness) and absent in healthy individuals

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53
Q

Koch’s Postulate #2

A

The microbe must be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture

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54
Q

Koch’s Postulate #3

A

The microbe from the pure culture must cause disease when it’s inoculated into a healthy, susceptible laboratory animal

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55
Q

Koch’s Postulate #4

A

The microbe must be isolated from the inoculated animal and be shown to be the original microbe

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56
Q

Bacteria is not a disease, it _____ the disease

A

causes

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57
Q

Significance of Koch’s Postulate #1

A

Ensures that the suspected microbe is consistently associated with the disease, implying that it plays a role in causing it

Rules out other potential causes

58
Q

Significance of Koch’s Postulate #2

A

Isolating the microbe ensures that you’re studying the actual organism responsible for the disease, not a contaminant or something unrelated

59
Q

Significance of Koch’s Postulate #3

A

Tests if the isolated microbe is indeed the cause of the disease, as it should reproduce the disease symptoms in a new, healthy host.

Strengthens the causal link between the microbe and the disease

60
Q

Significance of Koch’s Postulate #4

A

Recovering the same microbe from the experimentally infected host confirms that the microorganism was responsible for the disease

61
Q

The Germ Theory of Disease

A

microbes cause infectious disease

62
Q

Infectious diseases

A

Develop when an individual acquires a disease-causing microbe

Diseases can also have genetic or environmental causes (or a combination)

63
Q

Denature

A

Refers to the breaking of hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen bonds are much weaker than covalent bonds

64
Q

microbial ecology

A

how microbes interact with the world around them

65
Q

Today, we can learn about microbes by ….

A

Reading their genome

Allows us to see what a microbe is capable of without having to observe/culture it directly; we look at its sequence

Ex. A microbe with a gene for the lactase can break down lactose

We can learn how microbes are related (evolutionarily)

Similar genome = closely-related

66
Q

Genome

A

all the genes (DNA) that make up the microbe

67
Q

In the late 18th century, a physician named _____ ______ was responsible for developing the first vaccine

A

Edward Jenner

68
Q

What was the first vaccine against?

A

smallpox

69
Q

_____ were the first organisms to appear on Earth

A

Prokaryotes

70
Q

spontaneous generation

A

microbes could arise spontaneously from non-living matter

71
Q

biogenesis

A

living cells only arise from other living cells

72
Q

acute

A

short-term infection
Ex. cold, flu, COVID

73
Q

chronic

A

long-term infection (e.g. for life)
Ex. HIV

74
Q

Lipids

A

Essential component of biological membranes

75
Q

What are phospholipids composed of?

A

A glycerol

2 fatty acids that are nonpolar (uniform neutral charge) and hydrophobic

A phosphate group bonded to one of several organic groups that imparts an inherent negative charge to membranes

76
Q

Kingdoms of Eukaryotes

A

Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals

77
Q

What is the highest-powered objective lens on a standard light microscope? (hint: the oil immersion lens)

A

100x

78
Q

Which of the following is limited by the wavelength of light and cannot be adjusted on a light microscope?

A

Resolution

79
Q

Magnification

A

Enlarging the appearance of an object
CAN be changed by rotating the nosepiece

80
Q

Resolution

A

The ability to distinguish between two objects
Limited by the wavelength of light
Is lost if magnification increases beyond 1,000x
Even if lenses allowed magnification beyond 1,000x, the image would be blurry due to lack of resolution
CANNOT be adjusted/changed

81
Q

Focus

A

Adjusting the plane of the specimen so the image can be clearly resolved
Accomplished by raising/lowering the stage (bring specimen closer/further)
CAN be adjusted using the coarse and fine focus adjustment knobs

82
Q

Simple Stain

A

Involves a single dye so that all cells, despite differences in physiology, all stain the same color
Enables observation of cell morphology (cell shape and arrangement)
Methylene blue is commonly used
E. coli, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa stains blue

83
Q

Cell Morphology

A

The appearance of cells under the microscope

Don’t confuse cell morphology with colony morphology

2 Main Attributes: Cell Shape & Arrangement

84
Q

Spherical Cell Shape

A

Coccus/cocci

85
Q

Rod-Shaped Cell Shape

A

Bacillus/Bacilli

Other shapes (e.g. curved, spiral)

86
Q

Cell Arrangements

A

Single cells
Chains → strepto-
Clusters → staphylo-
Others arrangements (e.g. diplo-)

87
Q

Cell Chain Arrangement

A

Strepto

88
Q

Cell Cluster Arrangements

A

Staphylo-

89
Q

Gram Stain

A

Differential bacteria that stains different colors based on their physiology
Named after Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique
Based on cell wall composition (thickness of peptidoglycan)

90
Q

Gram Stain Process

A
  1. All cells are stained purple (crystal violet → primary stain)
  2. The purple color is ‘locked’ into a thick cell wall with iodine, the mordant
  3. The purple color is washed out of cell with a thin cell wall with alcohol, the decolorizer
  4. All cells receive a pink stain (safranin – counterstain); The cells with a thick cell wall are already purple so the pink color is masked
91
Q

In a Gram Stain, bacteria with a ___ cell wall composed of a single layer of peptidoglycan are called _____ and stained _____

A

Thin

Gram negative

Stain pink

92
Q

In a Gram Stain, bacteria with a ___ cell wall composed of multiple layers of peptidoglycan are called _____ and stained _____

A

Thick

Gram positive

Stain purple

93
Q

Proteins

A

Make up 50% of cell (by dry weight)
Essential to cell structure and function
Composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds (covalent)
Are encoded by genes (no gene for glucose; there are genes for enzymes that make glucose)
Different proteins have different lengths and amino acid sequences → different shapes → different functions

94
Q

Amino Acids

A

The building blocks of proteins

Has Carboxyl (C terminus) and amino (N terminus) ends

20 different amino acids, each with a different R group → each with different properties (e.g. charge, size)

95
Q

Refractive Index

A

How light bends as it moves through the material
Allows us to see a specimen
The specimen (e.g. cells) is made of a different material than the surrounding
Glass and air have different refractive indexes so light moves through the glass slide, then to air, then into the glass objective lens
Results in light being lost, leading to lost resolution
Immersion oil is used with the 1,000x objective to minimize refraction
Oil has the same refractive index as glass so it behaves as an extension of the glass; Fills in the gap

96
Q

Acid-Fast Stain

A

For bacteria with a waxy cell wall that does not stain well/consistently by Gram stain
The waxy character is due to mycolic acid in the cell wall
E.g. Mycobacteria spp

96
Q

Steps to an Acid-Fast Stain

A
  1. Primary stain – carbolfuchsin (with heat); wax stains pink
  2. Decolorizer – acid alcohol
  3. Counterstain – methylene blue
96
Q

Endospore Stain

A

a differential stain

97
Q

Steps to an Endospore Stain

A
  1. Primary stain – malachite green (with heat); stains endospores green
  2. Decolorizer – water
  3. Counterstain – safranin; everything else is stained pink
98
Q

3 major types of Carbohydrates

A
  1. Monosaccharide
  2. Disaccharide
  3. Polysaccharide
99
Q

Monosaccharide

A

a single monomer (e.g. glucose)

100
Q

Disaccharide

A

2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond – special type of covalent bond
Ex. sucrose, lactose

101
Q

Polysaccharide

A

tens-hundreds of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
Ex. glycogen, cellulose, chitin, starch
Bacteria’s cell wall made of peptidoglycan is polysaccharide chains linked together

102
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) → CHO
Used by many microbes as carbon and energy/food sources

103
Q

Bioremediation

A

Pollutants and toxic waste can be broken down by microbes
Helped to clean up the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 (210 million gallons of oil leaked into the Gulf of Mexico, microbes learned how (evolved) to use the oil as a food source)
Similarly, microbes can break down plastic

104
Q

Archaea seem similar to bacteria but…

A

are genetically distant (rRNA)

105
Q

Water

A

Inorganic compound
Most abundant compound in cells (65-75%)

106
Q

The nonpolar fatty acid tails (nonpolar, hydrophobic) in lipids repel from water, forming a…

A

Lipid bilayer consisting of 2 leaflets
Water in and outside of cell → why the fatty acids are oriented this way
No membrane is made up of one leaflet

107
Q

The conformation of DNA (double helix) forms due to ________ bonds between the base pairs (A, T, G, C)

A

hydrogen

The conformation of DNA is essential for storing genetic material in an accessible manner

In contrast, adjacent nucleotides are linked by covalent bonds

108
Q

When DNA denatures by heat, it separates into….

A

single strains

109
Q

The conformation of proteins is also due to ______ bonding

A

Hydrogen

H bonds are responsible for protein folding

Adjacent amino acids are held together by covalent bonds but distant amino acids interact through hydrogen bonds

If a protein denatures, it is no longer functional

This is why boiling water kills microbes

110
Q

Endospores

A

A hardy structure some bacteria form
Allows them to survive harsh conditions
The cell surrounds its DNA with several protective layers
Endospore is initially formed within the bacterial cell, eventually the cell breaks down leaving only the endospore behind
Once conditions improve, the endospore can reactivate and transition back into a vegetative cell

111
Q

Capsule

A

A gelatinous polysaccharide that some bacteria material (polysaccharide) are covered in
Common to bacterial pathogens as they function in immune evasion
Capsule isn’t recognized as ‘foreign’ so the immune system doesn’t respond
Allows the bacteria to ‘hide’ from phagocytes that are looking for threats within the body
It’s so good at hiding that the capsule doesn’t stain well

112
Q

Capsule Stain

A

A negative stain
Everything is stained but the capsule
1. India ink – provides color to the background
2. Counterstain – stains the cell
3. Capsule, the feature we’re interested in, is left unstained

113
Q

Anton von Leeuwenhoek

A

First person to observe microbial cells (late 17th century)
Lens-maker; created a lens with minimal imperfections, allowing him to see cells with 300x magnification
At the time, other scientists (like Robert Hooke) used compound microscopes (two lenses in sequence) but due to their imperfections, were not powerful enough to see microbes

114
Q

Macromolecules

A

Polymers made up of many monomers linked together by strong covalent bonds
Large biological molecules
Are unique to living organisms
Provide structure and perform functions:
DNA store genetic information
Proteins catalyze enzymatic reaction, also structural
Lipids form membranes

115
Q

Monosaccharides are the monomer that make up

A

Carbohydrates

116
Q

Fatty acids are the monomer that make up

A

Lipids

117
Q

Nucleotides are the monomer that make up

A

Nucleic Acids

118
Q

Amino acids are the monomer that make up

A

Proteins

119
Q

Preparing a Bacterial Smear

A

Before staining: bacteria must be attached the slide → bacterial smear

Heat fix: Add bacteria to a slide and pass it briefly over a flame to kill the bacteria in the process (cells won’t be moving under the microscope)

Dead bacteria take to stain better than live bacteria

Heat fix is not about sterilizing the slide

Spread culture → air dry → heat fix

120
Q

Most bacteria are colorless, so…

A

There is poor contrast under the microscope

Bacteria are stained to improve contrast

Most stains are positively charged to bind to the bacterial cell surface which has an inherent negative charge

121
Q

miasma theory

A

Blaming “bad air” for the cause of infectious diseases
Common for malaria

122
Q

Robert Koch

A

While dissecting an animal with anthrax, observed some rod-shaped bacteria in its blood, which is usually sterile with no bacteria
He collected some cells, grew them in the lab, and used them to inoculate a healthy animal
He followed these animals and saw they developed anthrax as well
He found the same rod-shaped bacterium in the blood of these animals

123
Q

Exceptions to Koch’s postulate #1

A

E.coli: lives in our gut and is apart of our normal microbiota, certain strains of E.coli cause disease
If it leaves our gut, it can cause disease (ex. UTI)
COVID: SARS-COV 2 virus still found in asymptomatic “healthy”-looking people
Common cold: Caused by hundreds of different viruses
Stomach bug: Caused by different pathogens

124
Q

Exceptions to Koch’s postulate #2

A

All viruses

125
Q

Exceptions to Koch’s postulate #3

A

Pathogen may only infect humans, not animals like HIV or HPV

126
Q

Robert Hooke

A

In 1665, using a simple compound microscope (2 microscopic lens’) first saw cells

Started the cell theory

Hooke’s microscope was not powerful enough to see microbes (bacterial cells)

127
Q

cell theory

A

all organisms are composed of cells

128
Q

RNA

A

Serves as a transcript; an intermediate between DNA and protein

Take info in DNA, transcript it into RNA, form protein

DNA and RNA nucleotides are the same except for the presence of a single -OH group in RNA

Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material (ex. SARS COV-2 and Influenza are RNA viruses)

129
Q

Edward Jenner

A

Responsible for developing the first vaccine – a vaccine against smallpox
Late 18th century physician
At the time, the Germ Theory of Disease was not widely accepted
The first vaccine was developed before it was known that microbes caused infectious diseases; Discovered the solution before the problem

130
Q

Jenner hypothesized that the development of cowpox somehow prevented the development of smallpox
To test his hypothesis….

A

Jenner scraped puss from a cowpox lesion and used it to inoculate a young boy (not ethical)

The boy developed symptoms of cowpox but was protected (immune) from deadly smallpox

Later, it was discovered that cowpox is caused by a virus that is very similar to the virus that causes smallpox.

The similarity between the two viruses is sufficient to train the immune system; Immune response to cowpox works to prevent smallpox

Milkmaids got cowpox b/c the cows had cowpox

131
Q

Vaccination

A

Primary purpose: to prevent the development of an infectious disease

Based on the idea that exposure to a substance (i.e. vaccine) can prevent disease upon future exposure to the pathogen

132
Q

Biogeochemical Cycling

A

Microbes play a crucial role in converting chemical elements into various forms; Nitrogen, carbon, oxygen

Many organisms (including humans) can only access elements if they’re in the proper form

Animals require N but can’t use N2 (atmospheric nitrogen), microbes can (nitrogen fixation)

133
Q

Antibiotics

A

Primary purpose: to treat an infectious disease

Discovered in 1928 by microbiologist Alexander Fleming

Have saved countless lives since their discovery

Are effective against bacteria, not viruses
(viruses lack cellular structure)

134
Q

Antibiotics effectiveness has been compromised due to…

A

The development of antibiotic resistant bacteria

Antibiotic resistant bacteria have mutations that allow them to survive in the presence of the antibiotic

Antibiotic resistance is inevitable but we can slow it down

135
Q

What 3 things are nucleotides comprised of?

A
  1. Phosphate
  2. 5-Carbon Sugar
  3. Base (A,T,G,C)
136
Q

Which carbon on the 5-carbon sugar does the phosphate attach to?

A

5

137
Q

Which carbon on the 5-carbon sugar does the base attach to?

A

1

138
Q

Amino acids are linked together by _____ bonds

A

peptide

139
Q

2 monosaccharides are linked together by a _______ bond

A

glycosidic

Microbiology - BIO214 (7 decks)

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