Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
anthropology
A
The holistic, integrative, and comparative study of humans
Anthropos: “man”,”human”
Logos: “study of”
2
Q
holistic
A
study the whole of the human condition
3
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integrative
A
combine evidence from multiple sources and multiple fields
4
Q
comparative
A
take a cross-cultural perspective in most of the research
5
Q
four fields of anthropology
A
cultural, linguistic, archaeology, biological
6
Q
culture
A
a uniquely human means of non-biological adaptation, learned behavior (def. gave by E.B. Taylor)
7
Q
ethnology
A
the science that analyzes and compares human cultures, cross-cultural comparison
8
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ethnography
A
the descriptive documentation and analysis of a contemporary culture, often involves fieldwork
9
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ethnocentrism
A
judging other cultures using one’s own cultural standards
10
Q
cultural relativism
A
the idea that to know another culture requires full understanding of its members’ beliefs and motivations
11
Q
linguistic anthropology
A
focuses on the formation and relationships between human languages and the relationship between language and culture
12
Q
archaeology
A
the study of human and artifact interactions in all times and all places (material culture)
13
Q
biological anthropology
A
the study of present and past biological variation in humans, human ancestors, and human relatives
14
Q
hypothesis
A
an educated guess based upon observation
15
Q
theory
A
a framework for generating hypotheses
16
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scientific law
A
a statement of fact meant to describe an action or set of actions. generally accepted to be true and universal
17
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culture is…
A
learned, based on symbols, shared, patterned
18
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enculturation
A
the process by which culture is learned and transmitted across the generations
19
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symbol
A
something, verbal or non-verbal, that stands for something else
20
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international culture
A
cultural traditions that extend beyond national boundaries
21
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national cultures
A
cultural features shared by citizens of the same nation
22
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subculture
A
share some features with dominant culture but have distinctive attributes of their own
23
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diffusion
A
when a cultural trait moves from one culture to another
24
Q
acculturation
A
an exchange of cultural features between groups in firsthand contact
25
independent invention
the process by which humans innovate, creatively finding solutions to problems
26
etic perspective
outsiders perspective
27
emic perspective
insiders perspective
28
Franz Boas
father of American anthropology. cultures progress through their own historical trajectories, there are no set stages
29
unilineal evolution
all cultures progress through set stages
30
multilineal evolution
distinctive cultural histories are emphasized
31
sociocultural evolution
describes how cultures have developed over time
32
what distinguishes humans from other animals
culture, only living bipedal mammals, nonhoning canine tooth, organized hunting with tools, speech, relatively large brains
33
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
(1700s-1800s) attempted to classify humanity into discrete groups on physical characteristics
34
James Cowles Prichard
(1800s) identified Africa as the origin place for humanity
35
Java Man
found by Eugene Dubois (late 1800s), earliest human fossil ever discovered
35
Piltdown Man
thought to be unknown early human, debunked in 1950s. mix of human and orangutan bones
35
taung child
published by Raymond Dart. first fossil of Australopithecus africanus, found in 1920s
35
Ales Hrdlicka vs. Franz Boas
Hrdlicka believed that human evolution was in stages(with Indigenous ppl at the bottom as early humans, and Europeans at the top as developed humans)
Boas believed in cultural relativism. Cultures cannot be ranked, and are all valid and can only be understood in their own contexts
35
Sherwood Washburn
1900s, pioneered study of primates in natural settings
36
Anthropometry
measurement of body form, earliest focus in biological anthropology
37
biocultural anthropology
explicitly concerned with the relationship between culture, behavior, and human biology
38
genetics
central biological anthropology in the 21st century, mapping genetic diversity and linking genotypes to phenotypes
39
primatology
a large subfield of biological anth with its own subfields, focus on wild and captive non-human primates. goal is to better understand humans (behavior, non-behavioral biology, the fossil record)
40
paleoanthropology
the study of human ancestors and their relatives, the grey area between archaeology and paleontology
41
bioarchaeology
study of human remains in archaeological contexts
42
paleopathology
study of disease in past populations. based on morphology and histology of bone
43
forensic anthropology
attempt to reconstruct a person's age, sex, pathological characteristics, and physical identity through their remains
44
human osteology
study of human skeleton, functional morphology, histology, biochemistry
45
medical anthropolgy
intersection of human health and human biology, cultural dimensions and conceptions of health
46
diet and nutrition
what did humans eat in the past and today? focus on non-industrial societies, relationships between diet and human biology
47
human reproduction and sex differences
consequences and tradeoffs for reproductive strategies, life history theory
48
Travels of Herodotus
400BC, accounts of people in western Asia and northern Africa
49
Aristotle
300BC, contemplated what separates humans from other animals, Universalist in approach
50
Michel de Montaigne
1500s, early cultural relativist (the noble savage)
51
Giambattista Vico
late 1600s-early 1700s, four stages of humanity
52
four stages of humanity
bestial condition, age of gods, age of heroes, age of man
53
Baron de Montesquieu
late 1600s-early 1700s, cross cultural study of legal systems, comparative in nature
54
Jean Jacques-Rousseau
1700s, humanity began in the state of nature, societal development increasingly corrupts individuals
55
Lewis Henry Morgan
1800s, technological stages for society: savagery, barbarism, civilization
56
Karl Marx
1800s, social change is driven by dialectics
57
Herbert Spencer
coined "survival of the fittest" in 1850s
58
James Ussher
1500s-1600s, reconstructed age of the world using Biblical chronology
59
James Hutton
1700s, idea of uniformitarianism
60
uniformitarianism
the same natural phenomena that occur today, occurred in the past
61
Charles Lyell
1800s, calculated how long it would have taken for the world's strata to form (Earth's age)
62
law of superposition
recent geological layers near the top and older layers near the bottom, establishes relative age
63
Robert Hooke
1600s, compared ammonite fossils to living invertebrates and fossil wood to living trees, concluding that the fossils were once living
64
Georges Cuvier
1700s-1800s, applied anatomical studies to fossil animals (Catastrophism)
65
Catastrophism
fossils in different strata are the result of major catastrophies.
66
Carolus Linnaeus
1700s, developed taxonomic system, all organisms can be named with a species (combination of genus and specific epithet)
67
order of taxonomic system
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species (dear king philip came over for good soup)
68
Thomas Malthus
1700s-1800s, population growth is limited by food. survival and reproduction depends on individual abilites. anticipated social Darwinism
69
Georges-Louis Leclerc
1700s, estimated Earth to be 70,000 years old. species spontaneously arose in different regions and could change with migration
70
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet (Lamarck)
1700s-1800s, evolution via disuse (acquired characteristics), new characteristscs inherited by offspring, increasingly complex
71
Erasmus Darwin
1700s, grandfather of charles darwin, all life originated from a single form, evolution driven by strongest members
72
Charles Darwin
1800s, HMS Beagle voyage to chart the coast of South America, recognized similarities of fossils with modern animals, natural selection (finches)
73
natural selection
those with traits better suited for their habitat are more likely to survive and produce offspring
74
Alfred Russell Wallace
1800s-1900s, similar conclusion to Darwin, collected specimens in the Amazon Forest, lost everything when ship sank, went to Malaysia and Indonesia, Wallace Line
75
Wallace Line
faunal boundary, transitional zone between Asia and Austrailia
76
consequences of Darwin
mechanism for evolution that allows predictions about modern life. hypothesis testing. triggered search for human ancestors
77
mode of inheritance
the manner that a trait is passed down generations
78
gregor mendel
1800s, contemporary of Darwin, bred pea plants to see the frequency in which traits were passed down
79
alleles
discrete unit inherited from one parent, dominant and recessive forms
80
genotype
paired allels
81
phenotype
physical expression of genotype
82
hetrozygous genotype
the allels are different
83
homozygous genotypes
the allels are the same
84
Thomas Hunt Morgan
1800s-1900s, replicated Mednel's work with fruit flies, demonstrated that genes are transported on chromosomes
85
mutation
the source of variation
86
modern synthesis
combination of Darwinian natural selection with Mendelian inheritance.
87
population genetics
how genes vary and evolve in groups of living organisms
88
gene flow
the diffusion of genes between populations
89
genetic drift
random fluctuations in allele frequencoes across a population; stronger force in small populations
90
the four forces of evolution
natural selection, mutation, gene flow, genetic drift
91
James Watson and Francis Crick
discovered the double helix shape of DNA (stole work from Rosalind Franklin)
92
Niko Tinbergen's four questions
development, mechanism, evolutionary history, function
93
gradualism
evolution takes milltions of years, its gradual
94
Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge
proposed punctuated equilibria, long periods of statis broken up by periods of rapid evolution
95
Macroevolution
evolution that can be noticed in the fossil record
96
inclusive fitness
organisms as carriers for genes
97
WD Hamiltion
1900s, named and mathematically formatlized inclusive fitness
98
V.V Wynne-Edwards
1900s, main proponent of group selection
99
group selection
groups of individuals who cooperate will outcompete those who do not
100
sociobiology
sought adaptive explanations for behavior, human and non-human
101
evolutionary psychology
assumes mismatch between modern behaviors and current environment
102
behavioral ecology
assumes high behavioral malleability, unlike evolutionary psychology
103
phenotypic gambit
concerned only with phenotypes, how they are inherited is not important
104
optimal foraging theory
assumed tight link between optimizing caloric intake and Darwinian fitness
105
cultural transmission theory
takes as a given that phenotypes can be transmitted through genes and culture, not adaptationist
106
epigenetics
heritable changes in gene expression
107
prokaryotes
organisms with cells that lack internal compartmentalization, all unicellular
108
eukaryotes
organisms with cells that contain internal compartments separated by membranes, unicellular or multicellular
109
viruses
no DNA or cell, requires a host cell to replicate, unable to grow or produce energy
110
chhromosomes
a threadlike structure of tightly pacled DNA
111
gene
each protein generating segment of DNA
112
genome
the complete set of genes in an individual
113
homoplasmic
identical in every cell in an organism's body
114
heteroplasmic
differs across cells, even those that comprise the same tissue
115
DNA structure
right-twisted double-helix that resmbles a ladder
116
proteins
template for protein synthesis, comprised of amino acids
117
mitosis
entails the division and replication of diploid cells
118
law of segregation
only one allele from each gene is present in gametes
119
law of independend assortment
alleles from different genes are sorted into gametes independent of each other
120
meiosis
replaces cells
121
structural genes
responsible for generating all of the body's tissues and structures
122
regulatory genes
control when structural genes are expressed
123
hox genes
control general body plan of most complex organisms
124
polymorphisms
when a gene varies across a population
125
microsatellites
highly individualistic segments of repeated DNA
126
epigenetics
modifications to the way that DNA is regulated and expressed, but the sequences themselves remain unchanged
127
deme
members of a species that can produce offspring
128
gene pool
all genetic material within a population
129
species
all members of all populations that can produce fertile offspring
130
mutation
copying errors, exceedingly rare events at the locus scale, only passed down during meiosis
131
synonymous point mutation
an altered nucleotide base triplet that contains the original amino acid
132
nonsynonymous point mutation
a new animo acid is produced
133
frameshift mutation
the insertion or deletion of a base
134
transposable elements
genes that copy themselves to other locations along a DNA sequence
135
spontaneous mutations
mutations with an unknown cause
136
induced mutations
caused by known environmental agents
137
directional selection
favors one form of a trait phenotype
138
stabilizing selection
favors the average trait phenotype
139
disruptive selection
favors multiple forms of a trait, with the exception of the average
140
melanic
gene is CC or Cc
141
nonmelanic
gene is only cc
142
genetic drift
random change in allele frequencies not subject to natural selection
143
endogamous
populations do not reproduce with other populations
144
exogamous
populations reproduce with members outside of their populations
145
founder effects
a specific type of genetic drift that occures during migration
146
gene flow
introduction of genetic material
147
geographic clines
some genes that spread due to logical environmental adaptations are easily phenotypically observable
148
the prenatal stage
begins at fertilization and ends at birth
149
zygote
fertilized egg cell
150
blastocyst
cells begin differentiating, forming an embryo and memranous layers around the embryo
151
postnatal stage
neonatal, infancy, childhood, juvenile period, puberty, adolescene
152
the adult stage
includes the reproductive and postreproductive periods
153
functional adaptations
biological adjustments that occur within an individual's lifetime
154
indirect approaches
studying populations in their natural environments, participant observation
155
direct approaches
replication of environmental conditions, lab experiments
156
Bergman's
optimal body size decreases with increasing temerature
157
allen's rule
limbs become longer and thinner in warmer climates
158
Wolff's Law
mass is produced where and when it is needed and removed where and when it is not needed
