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exam 1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

unity and continuity of life

A

-life on earth has descended from a common ancestor

-continuity among all living things stems from the inheritance of info encoded in DNA

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2
Q

adaptation and correlation

A

-evolution has been called that GUT of biology

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3
Q

adaptation and the correlation of structure and function

A

-adaptation provides a framework for making sense of the otherwise bewildering variation in nature

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4
Q

organisms interact with one another and their environment

A

-organisms must acquire energy from their environment

-competition, mutualism, predation and parasitism

-ecological context

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5
Q

diversity is valuable, yet under threat

A

-ecosystem services

-intangible benefits

-human activities threaten biodiversity

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6
Q

defining ecolution: broad definition - descent with modification

A

-suggests evolutions role in the unity and diversity of all species

-evolutionary relationships are often illustrated with treelike diagrams that show ancestors and their descendants

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7
Q

defining evolution: narrow definition

A

a change in the genetic composition of a population over generations

-note that evolution is something that happens to pop, not individuals

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8
Q

1795

A

Hutton proposes his principle of gradualism

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9
Q

1798

A

maithus publishes “essay on the principle of pop

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10
Q

1809

A

charles darwin is born

lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution

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11
Q

1812

A

Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils

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12
Q

1830

A

Lyell publishes principles of geology

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13
Q

1831-36

A

Darwin travels around the world oh HMS beagle

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14
Q

1844

A

Darwin writes his essay on descent with modification

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15
Q

1858

A

Wallace send darwin his hypothesis of natural selection

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16
Q

1859

A

on the origin of species is published

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17
Q

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

A

essay on the principle of pop (1798)

-charles darwin, from his autobiography (1876)

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18
Q

Georges Cuvier (1769- 1832)

A

-Fossils in older strata does not equal fossils in newer strata

-Cuvier advocated catastrophism

-didn’t believe in evolution

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19
Q

James Hutton (1726-1797) and Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

A

that changes in earths surface can result from slow continous actions still operating today

-lyells principle of uniformitarianism

-this view strongly influenced Darwins thinking

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20
Q

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)

A

-observed evolution in the fossil record

-proposed mechanisms:
-use and disuse
-inheritance of acquired characters

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21
Q

August Weismann barrier 1892

A

cutting mices tails dont make cut tailed offspring

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22
Q

Darwins personal history and contribution

A

-Charles Robert Darwin (1809- 1882)

-naturalist par excellence
-botany
-zoology

-incomplete forays into medicine and ministry

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23
Q

Voyage of the beagle (1831-1836)

A

-he observed that fossils resembled living species from the same region, and living species resembled other species from nearby regions

-rather than those of farther regions with similar environments

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24
Q

Darwin delays publication

A

-by 1840s, Darwin had worked out most of his hypotheses of how these adaptations could arise by natural selectino

-reluctant to publish

-collects more and more evidence

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25
Q

Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

A

reaches similar conclusions, sends manuscript to darwin

-succeeded where thers failed due to “immaculate logic and an avalanche of evidence”

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26
Q

on the origin of species by means of natural selection (1859)

A

Darwin explained three broad observations:

-the unity of life

-the diversity of life

-the match between organisms and their environment

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27
Q

descent with modification

A

-“evolution” does not appear in 1st ed. of Origin

-“Descent with modification” was the phrase he used

-attributes unity of life to descent of all organisms from a common ancestor
-gradual accumulation of modifications over millions of years leads to adaptations and biodiversity

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28
Q

evidence for evolution

A

-darwin noted that humans have modified others species by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits, a process called artifical selection

-Darwin drew two inferences from two observations

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29
Q

observation 1:

A

members of a pop often vary in their inherited traits

-ladybugs have different shades and dots

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30
Q

inference 1

A

-individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals

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31
Q

if the environment changes

observation 2:

A

-all species can produce more offspring than the environment can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce

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32
Q

inference 2

A

-the unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favourable traits in the pop over generations

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33
Q

understanding natural selection : common misconceptions

A

-new discoveries continue to fill the gaps identified by Darwin in The origin of species

-figure

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34
Q

there are 4 types of data that document the pattern of evolution

A

-direct observations

-homology

-the fossil record

-biogeography

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35
Q

direct observations

A

fig 22.14- the rise of MRSA -READ

-which two points about natural selcation do the soapberry ex and the MRSA ex highlight?

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36
Q

homology

A

-similarity resulting from common ancestry

-supports the evolutionary description of descent with modification

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37
Q

anatomical and molecular homologies

A

-homologous structures are anatomical resemblances representing variations on a structural theme present in a common ancestor

-forelimbs
-vestigial structures
-pseudogenes

fig

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38
Q

homologies and “tree thinking”

A

-evolutionary tress are hypotheses about relationships among different groups

-homologies form nested patterns in evolutionary trees

-evolutionary trees can be made using different types of data, for ex, anatomical and DNA sequence data

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39
Q

the fossil record. the transitin to life in the sea

A

-fossils can document important transitions

-ex. the transition from land to sea in ancestors of cetaceans

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40
Q

Biogeography

A

-the study of the geographic distribution of species, provides evidence of evolution

-earths continents were formerly united as single large continent (pangaea), but separated by continental drift

-an understanding continent movement and modern species distribution allows us to predict when and where different groups evolved

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41
Q

mendel and the modern synthesis

A

-one of the great challenges to Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection was the lack of understanding inheritance

-the next great advance in evolutionary biology would require genetics

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42
Q

gregor mendel

A

-demonstrated particulate inheritance

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43
Q

ready for a modern synthesis

A

-inheritance better understood

-new field of genetics develops
-in particular, population genetics

-stage is set for a synthesis of several disciplines under the umbrella of evolutionary biology

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44
Q

populations _ not _

A

populations evolve, not individuals

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45
Q

microevolution

A

-a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations

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46
Q

3 mechanisms cause allele freguencies in a pop over generations

A

-natural selection
-genetic drift
-gene flow

only natural selection causes adaptive evolution

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47
Q

what causes adaptive evolution

A

natural selection

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48
Q

genetic variation

A

-variation in heritable traits is a prerequisite for evolution

-mendels work on pea plants provided evidence of discrete heritable units (genes)

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49
Q

genetic variation among individuals is caused by:

A

differences in genes or other DNA segments

P=G+E

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50
Q

genetic veriation within and between populations

A

within pop:

-nucleotide variability rarely results in phenotypic variation

-note all phenotypic variation is the result of genetic variation

figs

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51
Q

where does genetic variation come from?

sources:

A

-new genes and alleles can arise by mutation or gene duplication

-sexual reproduction can result in genetic variation by recombining existing alleles

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52
Q

sexual reproduction

A

-sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations
-crossing over
-independent assortment of chromosomes
-fertilization

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53
Q

hardy-weinberg

A

the equation can be used to test whether a pop is evolving

-the first step in testing whether evolution is occurring in a pop is to clarify what we mean by a pop

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54
Q

population

A

a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring

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55
Q

gene pools

A

consists of all the alleles for all loci in a pop

-a locus is fixed if all individuals in a pop are homozygous for the same allele

fig

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56
Q

allele frequencies

A

-if there are 2 or more alleles for a locus, diploid individuals may be either homozygous or heterozygous

-the frequency of an allele in pop can be calculated
-for dipoid organisms, the total number of alleles at a locus is the total number of individuals times 2
-the total number of dominant alleles at a locus is 2 alleles for homozygous dominant individual plus 1 allele for each heterozygous individual; the same logic applies for recessive alleles

-by covention, if there are 2 alleles at a locus, p and q are used to represent their frequencies

-frequency of all alleles in a pop will add up to 1
-that is, p + q = 1

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57
Q

the hardy-weinberg equation

A

-describes the genetic makeup we expect for a pop that is not evolving at a particular locus

-if the observed genetic makeup of the pop differs from hary-weinberg expectations, it can be concluded that pop may be evolving

-evolutionary null hypothesis

58
Q

hardy-weinberg equilibrium

A

-in a given pop where gametes contribute to the next gen randomly, and mendelian inheritance occurs, allele and genotype freq remain constant from gen to gen

-such a pop is in hardy-weinberg equilibrium

fig

59
Q

conditions for Hardy-weinberg equilibrium

A

-the HW theorem describes a hypothetical pop that is not evolving

-in real pop, allele and genotype freq do change over time

60
Q

the 5 conditions for nonevolving pop are rarely met in nature:

A

-no mutations
-random mating
-no natural selection
-extremely large pop size
-no gene flow

61
Q

genetic drift

A

fig

62
Q

pop size matters

A

-all pop will experience genetic drift but the effects of genetic drift on allele freq is on average more pronounced in small pop

63
Q

founder effect

A

-when a few individuals become isolated from a larger pop, this smaller group may establish a new pop whose gene pool differs from the source pop

-blown by storm to new area

64
Q

bottleneck effect

A

-a sudden change in environment, such as a fire or flood, may drastically reduce the size of a pop

-a severe drop in pop size

65
Q
A
66
Q

consequences for pop

A

-cuz the change in allele freq is random and pop are independent, genetic drift leads to an increase in genetic variation among pop

-genetic drift is expected to lead to an increase in genetic variation among pop

fig

67
Q

gene flow

A

-consists of movement of alleles among pop

-alleles can be transferred through movement of fertile individuals or gametes (pollen ex)

68
Q

gene flow and local adaptation

A

-gene flow can decrease the fitness of a pop

-consider the water snake pop of lake eerie

mainland = A-C
Island = D

unexpected results- snakes on different places- they swam

natural selection trying to keep up but gene flow is overpowering

69
Q

consequences for pop

A

-gene flow can lead to increased genetic variation within pop

-GF can lead to decreased differences in the allele composition among pop

-GF can increase the fitness of a pop through local adaptation

-can lead to spread of beneficial alleles

fig

70
Q

natural selection fig

A

fig

71
Q

relative fitness

A

-the conribution a genotype makes to the gene pool of the next gen ( # of offspring produced), relative to the contributions of other genotypes

-selection acts to increase the freq of alleles that confer a reprocuctive advantage (having higher relative fitness)

fig

72
Q

directional selection

A

favours individuals at one end of the phenotypic range

extremes are selected for, intermediates selected aganst

73
Q

disruptive selection

A

favours individuals at both extremes of the pheno range

-african finch ex: two bill morphs in black-bellied seed cracker finches
-large-billed individuals feed on sedges with hard seeds; small-billed feed on sedges with soft seeds

fig

74
Q

stabilizing selection

A

-favours intermediate phenotypes and acts against extreme phenotypes

75
Q

other forms of selection

A

-sexual selection
-balancing selection
-frequency-dependent selection

76
Q

sexual selection

A

-is natural selection for mating success

-it can result in sexual dimorphism, marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics

-certain inherited traits result in an increase in likelihood of obtaining mates!

77
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species

78
Q

2 types of sexual selection

A

intrasexual selection and intersexual selection

79
Q

intrasexual selection

A

-the strongest most fit gets the mate

-they fight others to impress

80
Q

intersexual selection

A

-female choosiness

-do behaviours to get attention

-birds dancing

81
Q

How do females preferences evolve?

A

fig

82
Q

balancing selection

A

-why are disadvantageous alleles not removed by natural selection?

-balancing selection occurs when netural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a pop

83
Q

balancing selection includes

A

-heterozygote advantage
-freqency-dependent selection

84
Q

heterozygote advantage

A

-occurs when heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both homozygotes

-natural selection will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that locus

-heterozygote advantage can result from stabilizing or directional selection

Aa is protected cuz it acts like AA

hetero with intermediate = stabilizing

85
Q

frequency-dependent selection

A

-the fitness of a phenotype declines if it becomes too common in the pop

-selection can favour whichever phenotype less common in a pop

fig

86
Q

why natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms

A

-1 can only act on existing variations -only the fittest phenotypes in a pop

-2) evolution is limited by historical constraints–cant add random limbs. Birds wings have parts that were already there

-3) adaptations are often compromises- organisms do many diff. things. Seals could walk better online with feet but then cant swim as well

-4) chance, natural selection, and the environment interact- wind doesn’t blow the fittest allele to a new island. so founder effect not always the best

87
Q

speciation

A

-the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory

-evolutionary theory explains how new species originate and how pop evolve

-microevolution vs macroevolution

88
Q

what is a species?

A

-the biological species concept is based on the potential to interbreed rather than on physical similarity

89
Q

limitations of the biological species concept

A

-gene flow can occur between distinct species
-ex, grizzly bears and polar bears can mate to produce “grolar bears”

90
Q

Other species concepts

A

-morphological SC

-lineage/Phylogenetic SC

91
Q

the lineage species concept

A

fig

92
Q

what is and isnt a species has consequences

A

-eastern long-toed salamander is currently list as being of “special concern” in alberta cuz of its narrow distribution in the province

-genetic data reveals that the range of this subspecies is even more limited in the province than current range maps show

-there is some evidence taht this subspecies is reproductively isolated from the others

93
Q

what are the reproductive barriers

A

-habitat isolation,
-temporal isolation,
-behavioural isolation
-mechanical isolation,
-gametic isolation,
-reduced hybrid viability,
-reduced hybrid fertility,
- hybrid breakdown

94
Q

habitat isolation

A

2 species that have different habitats in the same area might see each other rarely

95
Q

temporal isolation

A

species that breed during different times of day, seasons, or years, can’t see each other to mix their gametes

96
Q

behavioural isolation

A

-behavioral rituals enable mate recognition- a way to identify potential mates

-different dances might make others confused and leave

-toothless

97
Q

mechanical isolation

A

-mating is attempted but morphological differences prevent its successful completion

-snails, right snails have penis on right side, cant mate with left side snails

98
Q

gametic isolation

A

-sperm of one species might not be able to fertilize eggs of another species

-might not be able to penetrate or will die fast

99
Q

reduced hybrid viability

A

-genes of different parent species may interact in ways that impair the hybrids development or survival in its environment

100
Q

reduced hybrid fertility

A

-if the chromosomes of the 2 parent species differ in number or structure, meiosis in the hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes

-they become infertile like mules

101
Q

hybrid breakdown

A

some first-gen hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate with one another or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

102
Q

speciation

A

-the process by which one species splits into 2

-barriers = traits

fig

103
Q

trait divergence: ex

A

-the colonization of freshwater by a marine stickleback ancestor occurred in many separate locations, and was accompanied by a consistent suite of changes

marine fish:
-longer
-slimmer body
-long spines
-lots of armor plates
-salt water physiology
-open-water (limnetic)
-more gill rakers

freshwater:
-smaller
-deeper body
-shorter (or absent spines)
-freshwater physiology
-fewer armor plates
-bottom (benthic) feeding
-fewer gill rakers

104
Q

-speciaton can occur in 2 ways

A

-allopatric speciation
-sympatric speciation

105
Q

allopatric speciation

A

“other country)

-gene flow is interrupted when a pop is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations

-barrier def differs for different organisms

106
Q

reproductive isolation as a by-product of selection

A

-in ponds with predatory fishes, the mosquitofishs head is stremlined and the tail is powerful, enabling rapid bursts of speed

-in ponds without predatory fishes, mosquitofish have a different body shape that favours long, steady swimming

107
Q

allopatric speciation in snapping shrimp

A

-gene flow occured between atlantic and pacific pop.

-the 2 species arose as a consequence of geographic separation

-regions that are isolated or highly subdivided by barriers typically have more species than other similar regions

-geographic isolation prevents interbreeding between members of allopatric pop, physical separation is not a bio barrier to reproduction

108
Q

sympatric speciation

A

“same country”

-speciation takes place in geographically overlapping pop

109
Q

-sympatric speciation can occur if gene flow is reduced by factors including:

A

-polyploidy
-sexual selection
-habitat differentiation

110
Q

ployploidy

A

-the presence of extra chromosome sets due to accidents during cell division

-autopolyploid vs allopolyploid

fig

111
Q

sexual selection

A

-sexual selection can drive sympatric speciation

-sexual selection for mates of different colours has likely contributed to speciation in cichlid fish in lake victoria

112
Q

habitat differentiation

A

the fish select fish that are closely like them to mate

under a weird light thing the females thought different fis were like them and so mated

113
Q

does sexual selection in cichlids result in reproductive isolation?

A

fig

114
Q

rotations around the nodes (common ancestors)-

A

don’t change the evolutionary relationships!

fig

115
Q

-tree construction is based on 2 main concepts

A

-principle of parsimony
-the use of shared, derived homologies

116
Q

parsimony

A

-the assumption that evolution proceeds by a smaller rather than a larger number of events

the simpilest tree is the best

fig

117
Q

shared, derived homologies

A

-derived means non-ancestral (new trait)

fig

118
Q

inferring phylogenies: a worked ex

grouping taxa by shared derived traits

A

-the most inclusive group includes all taxa with vertebrae (shared, derived character) and separates the ingroup from the outgroup

-the next most inclisive group includes all taxa with a boney skeleton and separates our basal ingroup taxa from the others

-the next most inclusive group includes all taxa with 4 limbs

-the next most inclusive includes all taxa with an amnitic egg

-we then have 2 equally inclusive groups; one that has hair and one that has 2 post-orbital fenestrae. these tie for our place in the hierarchy

fig

119
Q

translating phylogeny into classification

A

3 potential ways

-based on monophyletic groups

-based on paraphyletic groups

-based on polyphyletic groups

120
Q

monophyletic group (clade)

A

consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendents

fig

121
Q

paraphyletic group

A

consists of an ancestral species and some of its descendents

fig

122
Q

polyphyletic groups

A

consists of various species with different ancestors

fig

123
Q

evolution can be defined more-

A

narrowly as a change in genetic composition of a pop over generations (narrow def)

evolution is something that happens to populations NOT individuals

124
Q

gradualism

A

water makes tiny changes. then after years it will be big enough to be canons and such

125
Q

Lammarckianism

A

is not true in a lot of situations

(cutting mice tails wont make their offspring not have tails)

126
Q

epigenetic changes

A

moms with lots of stress adds menthol groups to baby (lamarckinism)

127
Q

catastrophism

A

-theory that earths surfaces and landscape can largely be explained by sudden, short-lived, and violent events such as cataclysmic earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions

128
Q

uniformitarianism

A

the idea that earth has always changed in uniform ways and that the present is the key to the past

129
Q

variation in a pop

A

traits that are heritable and more desired that is given to offspring

130
Q

allele freq ex

A

consider a pop of wildflowers incompletely dominant for colour:

320 red (CrCr)
160 pink (CrCw)
20 white (CwCw)

-calculate the number of copies of each allele:

of flowers =
# of alleles =

320+160+20 = 500 individuals x 2 alleles (white and red) = 1000 alleles

Cr = (320 x 2) + 160 = 800 Cr
Cw = (20 x 2) + 160 = 200 Cw
(800 + 200 = 1000)

Cr= 800/1000 = 0.8

p + q = 1
0.8 + q = 1 q = 0.2

131
Q

convergenct evolution

A

orgainisms that are closely related share characteristics cuz of common descent, distantly related organisms can resemble one another

-independent evolution of similar features in differnt lineages

132
Q

hetero zygote advantage ex sickle cell

A

HH = no sickle cell
Hh = some normal, some sickle
hh= sickle cells, but is protected by malria

Hh is the most advantages with malaria cuz it is protected

133
Q

favours phenotypes that are-

A

less common

-fish

134
Q

Autopolyploidy

A

occurs when organisms have more than 2 sets of chromosomes from the same species

135
Q

alloopolyploid

A

2 different species interbreed and produce hybrid offspring

various mechanisms can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid

-allos are fertile when mating but cant interbreed, and so they represent a new biological species

136
Q

why are most hybrids sterile

A

the set of chromosomes from one species cannot pair during meiosis with the set of chromosomes from the other species

137
Q

-morphy

A

character/ trait

138
Q

sym/syn

A

shared

139
Q

apo

A

derived/new

140
Q

pleisio

A

ancient/old

141
Q

aut

A

self/single

Bio exams (7 decks)

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