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Bio 151 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

initial theory about species reproduction

A

spontaneous regeneration

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2
Q

experiment used to disprove spontaneous regeneration

A

maggots; covered vs uncovered habitats

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3
Q

Cell Theory

A

everything living is made of cells AND cells are produced from other cells (cell division)

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4
Q

evolutionary evidence that cells produce to make diff kinds of cells

A

extinct species and appearance of new species (adaptation to form new species)

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5
Q

Natural selection

A

1) trait variation
2) heritable traits
3) certain traits allow better survival in environment -> reproduce successful offspring

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6
Q

Cells 4 functions

A

1) transform matter (build and break molecules)
2) acquire, store, and produce chemical and kinetic energy
3) acquire, save and acquire coordinate info w/ other cells and environment
4)pass info from parent -> daughter

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7
Q

what do dissolved molecules do

A

diffuse between parts of cell; collide and undergo chem rxn

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8
Q

diffusion

A

move things over short distances from region of high conc -> low conc

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9
Q

water adhesion

A

polar water molecules electrically attracted to polar and charged molecules (ex. miniscus)

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10
Q

water cohesion

A

polar water molecules bind to other water molecules by H bonds (ex. round water droplets; water sticks to itself)

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11
Q

why does ice float in water?

A

the orientation of hydrogen bonds causes molecules to push farther apart, which lowers the density of ice, making it float in water.

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12
Q

hydrocarbon

A

molecule made of exclusively hydrogen and carbons

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13
Q

saturated hydrocarbon

A

all carbon carbon single bonds

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14
Q

unsaturated hydrocarbon

A

includes some c-c double bonds; kinks in chain

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15
Q

atomic force microscopy

A

measure forces exerted by atoms

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16
Q

4 functions of carbon containing organic molecules

A

1) structure (see if it will dissolve in water)
2) reactants to make product molecules
3) energy stored in bonds
4) control of chemical reactions

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17
Q

hydrophobic interactions

A

water molecules would rather be by other water molecules than hydrophobic molecules; most stable with smaller surface where hydrophobic molecule and water meet

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18
Q

amphipathic molecules

A

have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

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19
Q

plasma membrane

A

amphipathic molecules that separate intracellular cytoplasm/cytosol from extracellular cell well or extracellular matrix

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20
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed

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21
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

entropy (randomness/disorder) is always increasing

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22
Q

potential energy

A

the stored ability to cause motion/ release energy

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23
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy of motion

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24
Q

Spontaneous rxn

A

rxn that releases PE from its bonds (reactant energy> product energy) and entropy increases (more disorder/ little molecules)

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25
Q

Exergonic rxn

A

spontaneous (releases energy); neg delta G

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26
Q

endergonic rxn

A

non spontaneous (requires energy); pos delta G

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27
Q

Which bond has more PE: C-H or C-O

A

C-H because the electrons are shared more equally (non polar) so the bond is stronger, meaning more energy is released when broken.

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28
Q

Anabolic reaction

A

ADD: many small molecules -> bigger one(s)
*endergonic rxn

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29
Q

Catabolic Reaction

A

CUT: bif molecule(s) breaks up into smaller ones (increasing disorder and bonds breaking -> EXERGONIC)

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30
Q

reaction coupling

A

exergonic (spontaneous) reaction run with endergonic reaction and act as energy source.

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31
Q

coupling reaction in cells

A

ATP + H2O -> ADP + Pi (inorganic phosphate) + energy

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32
Q

ATP and glucose coupling rxn

A

Glucose + ATP -> Glucose 6-phosphate + ADP

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33
Q

ADP -> ATP + H2O; catabolic or anabolic?

A

anabolic (endergonic)

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34
Q

ATP + H2O -> ADP; catabolic or anabolic?

A

catabolic (exergonic)

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35
Q

Activation energy

A

energy needed to start the reaction; energy barrier

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36
Q

catalyst

A

provides alt pathways; lowers the EA to speed up the reaction

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37
Q

enzyme

A

biological catalyst
name: ___ase

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38
Q

carbohydrate C:H:O ratio

A

1:2:1

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39
Q

lipid C:H:O ratio

A

1:2:few

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40
Q

Carbohydrate monomer

A

monosaccharide; general formula CH2O

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41
Q

protein monomer

A

amino acid (amino group, carboxylic acid group, alpha carbon, and side chain)

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42
Q

nucleic acid monomer

A

Nucleotides (nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar, phosphate group)

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43
Q

What type of bond links protein monomers together into a polymer?

A

Peptide bonds:
carbonyl group and amine group dehydration rxn to yield C-N peptide bond and H2O

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44
Q

polymer formed by protien monomers (amino acids)

A

polypeptide

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45
Q

What type of bond links carbohydrate monomers together into a polymer?

A

glycosidic bond:
hydroxyl groups on sugars dehydration rxn to yield H2O + sugar- O - sugar

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46
Q

polymers formed by carbohydrate monomers

A

Polysaccharids

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47
Q

What type of bond links nucleic acid monomers together into a polymer?

A

Phosphodiester Bonds:
sugar -phosphate - sugar

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48
Q

carbohydrate functions

A
  • breakdown sugar to get energy
    -store energy
    -make support structures
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49
Q

carbohydrate plants make to store energy

A

starch

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50
Q

carbohydrates animals make to store energy

A

glycogen

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51
Q

carbohydrate support structures ex

A

-cellulose: used in cell walls of plant cells
-chitin: used in cell walls of fungi and insect exoskeleton

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52
Q

protein functions

A

determined by R group properties (acidic/basic, hydrophobic/phillic, etc)

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53
Q

nucleic acid functions

A

store genetic material

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54
Q

Protein primary structure

A

sequence of amino acid

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55
Q

Protein secondary structure

A

H bonding between carbonyl groups and amide group
*alpha helix and beta pleated sheet structure

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56
Q

Protein tertiary structure

A

interactions between R groups (ionic, H bonds, VDW, disulfide bridge covalent interaction, etc)

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57
Q

Protein quaternary structure

A

multiple polypeptide subunits make loosely packed arrangement

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58
Q

Chaperone

A

proteins that help other proteins correctly fold

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59
Q

condensation rxn/ dehydration rxn

A

removes water from molecule; anabolic rxn small mol -> bigger mol

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60
Q

hydrolysis rxn

A

breaks down polymers -> monomers; catabolic (cuts water and polymer molecule)

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61
Q

Monosaccharides structure

A

3-7 carbon long hydrocarbon chain with 1 carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups (can be linear or cyclical)

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62
Q

amino acid structure

A

alpha carbon, hydrogen, amine group, carboxylic acid, r group

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63
Q

Nucleotide structure

A

nitrogenous base, 5-carbon monosaccharide (ribose or deoxyribose) and 1-3 phosphate groups

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64
Q

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

A

DNA; any 4 deoxyribose nucleotide (A,T,G,C)

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65
Q

Ribonucleic Acid

A

RNA; any of 4 ribous nucleic acid (A,C,G,U)

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66
Q

structural difference between RNA and DNA (4)

A

1) RNA has -OH group (reactive group) on 2’ carbon making it less stable and DNA has -H on 2’ carbon

2) DNA is double helix while RNA is single stranded

3) RNA has U and DNA has T

4) DNA longer strand than RNA

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67
Q

protein denaturing

A

loss of secondary,tertiary, and quaternary structures of protein

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68
Q

what factors affect protein denaturation

A

temperature, pH, salt concentration

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69
Q

ex. of protien mutation

A

hemoglobin; mutation in 1 amino acid in primary structure -> change in instructions for folding and interactions -> sickle cell anemia

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70
Q

2 types of enzyme inhibition

A

competitive inhibition and non competitive/ allosteric inhibition

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71
Q

competitive inhibition

A

inhibitor binds to the active so substrate cannot bind
*no chemical reaction
*temporary

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72
Q

non competitive/ allosteric inhibition

A

inhibitor binds to allosteric site and changes shape of enzyme
*chemical reaction

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73
Q

Non polar R groups

A

C-H bonds/ rings and sometimes S and N

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74
Q

uncharged Polar R groups

A

-OH groups

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75
Q

charged polar R groups

A

acidic: -COOH
basic: NH3

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76
Q

3 basic tenets of cell theory

A

All organisms are made up of cells
Cells are the fundamental unit of life (smallest entity that can be defined as living)
Structure of cells connected to function
Cells come from pre existing cells

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77
Q

differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes (organization, compartmentalization, size)

A

Prokaryotes: have cell wall to maintain shape, nucleotide rather than nucleus’s, non membrane bound organelles
Eukaryotes: contain nucleus and other membrane bound organelles, larger

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78
Q

Feedback inhabition

A

Allows cells to control the amounts of products produced from metabolic processes; regulates production

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79
Q

Protein functions (3)

A

-regulate other proteins and molecules (bind to target and chem modify; add, activate, inactivate, destruct, etc)
-provide structural support (ex fibers, collagen, etc)
-use energy from atp and act as motors/ pumps to drive rxn

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80
Q

Structural difference between dna and rna

A

DNA backbone has -H and RNA backbone/ sugar has -OH
*different nitrogenous bases bind

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81
Q

Dna nitrogenous bases; complementary pairs

A

A and T
C and G

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82
Q

RNA nitrogenous bases; complementary pairs

A

A and U
C and G

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83
Q

Complementary nucleotides

A

Bind via hydrogen bonds; lock and key mechanism
*new strand created complementary to templet strand

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84
Q

DNA transcription

A

DNA template splits and makes mRNA sequence

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85
Q

DNA translation

A

mRNA directions go to ribosome and create protein polypeptide

86
Q

DNA replication

A

Hydrogen bonds between bases break and sequence used as code to create complementary strands which create 2 double started structure identical to the original

87
Q

Ribozymes

A

RNA enzymes
*floppy rna strands binds with itself

88
Q

Fatty acid

A

Long hydrocarbon chain with carboxyl group at end

89
Q

Lipid functions

A

Storing and releasing energy from breaking hydrophobic bonds

90
Q

Triglycerides

A

3 fatty acids linked by a glycerol

91
Q

What type of lipids are membranes made up of

A

Phospholipids;
Polar head from phosphate group and long hydrophobic fatty acid tails

92
Q

Phospholipid hydrophobic interactions in water

A

-micelle: heads on outside of half circle
-liposome: micelle with hydrophobic hole region in center
-bylayer sheet

93
Q

Cell membrane / plasma membrane

A

Amphipathic structure that separates inside of the cell from outside of the cell; defines boundaries of cell

94
Q

Glycolipids

A

lipids with saccharides instead of phosphate hydrophilic head

95
Q

Steroid

A

lipid with hydrocarbon ring structure

96
Q

Cholesterol in membranes

A

Membrane becomes more solid at high temperatures and more fluid at low temperatures; more resistant to temp change so stabilizes membrane

97
Q

Permeability of lipid bilayer

A

-non polar molecules pass through easily
-small polar molecules (ex. h2o) pass through
-dissolved gases
-large polar molecules and ions CANNOT pass through on own
-amphoteric molecules; depends on size/ significance of polar group

98
Q

do steroids pass through lipid bilayer

A

most do!

99
Q

do phospholipids pass THROUGH lipid bilayer

A

no

100
Q

Isotonic

A

solute conc same inside and outside of cell

101
Q

Hypotonic

A

solute conc lower outside of the cell; blown up

102
Q

How do cells respond to hypotonic conditions

A

-plant: cell walls create turgor pressure to block water entry
-animal: contractile vacuoles pump out water

103
Q

hypertonic

A

solute conc higher outside of cell; shriveled

104
Q

Osmosis

A

diffusion of water across membrane
high -> low water conc

105
Q

trans membrane proteins

A

proteins embedded in lipid bilayer to facilitate movement
*hydrophobic R groups near lipid tails

106
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

creates pathway to help diffusion along
*along/down conc gradient

107
Q

types of facilitated diffusion proteins

A

-channel/ pores
-carrier proteins; lock and key interactions
-specialized carrier proteins/channels (ion channels, macromolecule carriers, etc)

108
Q

aquaporins

A

pores/ channels for water
*speeds up osmosis

109
Q

active transport

A

energy required to move substances across membrane
*AGAINST conc gradient

110
Q

secondary transport/ cotransport

A

diffusion of molecule down conc gradient drives/ provides energy for active transport of another molecule against conc gradient

111
Q

primary transport

A

ATP used to move substances across membrane through active transport

112
Q

Symporter

A

type of co transported that cotransports in the same direction

113
Q

antiporter

A

type of co transported that cotransports in the opposite direction

114
Q

how to couple primary and secondary transport

A

use pump (primary active transport) to drive cotransport of substance against gradient.

115
Q

3 domains of life

A

bacteria, archara (both prokaryotes) and eukaryotes

116
Q

what makes eukaryotes different than prokaryotes

A

-bigger/more complex
-can deform and pince off bits of membrane; vesicle/vacuole
-has organelles

117
Q

organelle

A

specialized membrane bound compartments in a cell (only in eukaryotes)

118
Q

endocytosis

A

membrane pinching off and capturing substance from outside of cell

119
Q

exocytosis

A

membrane fusion releases vesicle contents to the outside of the cell.

120
Q

Semi autonomous organelles

A

prokaryote resembling structure inside of the cell
*mitochondria and chloroplast

121
Q

Semi autonomous organelle functions

A

-double membrane bounded
-split/ replicate like prokaryotes
-has own dna and ribosomes -> produce protien

122
Q

theory of Semi autonomous organelle evolution

A

Endosymbiont;
bacteria enters eukaryote -> helped cell produce ATP -> evolved to make Semi autonomous organelles
*symbiotic relationship

123
Q

3 steps of respiration

A

1) glycolysis (happens in cytoplasm)
2) citric acid/ krebs cycle (in mitochondrial matrix)
3)Oxidative phosphorylation (across inner mitochondrial membrane)

124
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

when a phosphoryl group is transferred from a high energy substrate to ADP -> ATP and coupled with release of energy
*happens in glycolysis and krebs cycle

125
Q

cell membrane with saturated fatty acid tail favored at….

A

high temp

126
Q

cell membrane with unsaturated fatty acid tail favored at….

A

low temp

127
Q

Oxidizing agent

A

substance that is reduced (gains e-)
ex. electron carriers

128
Q

reducing agent

A

substance that is oxidized
ex. sugars

129
Q

e- carrier cycle

A

get e- energy from C-H bonds -> break bonds to produce energy by e- being released

130
Q

glycolysis

A

6-carbon glucose produces 2 3-carbon pyruvates

131
Q

glycolysis requirements

A

requires phosphates from 2 ATP molecules

132
Q

glycolysis yeilds

A

-4 ATP (2 net ATP yield bc 2 ATP put in)
-2 NADH
- 2 pyruvate (per 1 glucose)

133
Q

Pyruvate Oxidation

A

pyruvate loses 1 Carbon -> CO2
pyruvate - 1C then binds to Coenzyme A -> produce Acetyl- CoA

134
Q

Pyruvate oxidation steps

A

One, carbon dioxide is released from pyruvate. Two, the remaining portion of pyruvate (an acetyl group) is oxidized (donates an electron) to form NADH from NAD+. Three, the oxidized acetyl group binds with Coenzyme A to make acetyl CoA.

135
Q

pyruvate oxidation yield

A

-2 Acetyl-CoA
-2 CO2
-2 NADH

136
Q

Citric Acid Cycle

A

1) Acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) added to 4-carbon compound -> 6-carbon citric acid

2) 6 carbon citric acid looses 2 carbons -> 2 CO2 and high energy e-

3) regenerate starting 4 carbon and get ATP

137
Q

Citric acid cycle requirements

A

2 Acetyl-CoA

138
Q

Citric Acid Cycle yeilds

A
  • 2 ATP
  • 6 NADH
  • 2 FADH2
  • 2 CO2
139
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

oxidation of the electron carriers using oxygen that produces the most ATP

140
Q

how much ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield

A

26-34 ATP per glucose

141
Q

2 parts of oxidative phosphorylation

A

electron transport chain and ATP synthase

142
Q

Electron transport chain

A

-series of H+ pumps in inner membrane that use energy from high energy e- to pump H+ into intermembrane space

-as chain continues, e- loose energy; oxygen takes low energy e- -> H2O

143
Q

ATP synthase

A

facilitated diffusion of H+ through channel -> spins channel protein to catalyze ATP synthase
-H+ diffuses back across inner membrane

144
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

H+ going from high conc to low conc
*drive synthesis of ATP

145
Q

Cellular respiration efficiency

A

40%

146
Q

cellular respiration products

A

30-38 ATP
10 NAD+
2 FAD

147
Q

what other energy sources other than carbohydrates/ glucose can be turned into ATP?

A

fats and proteins

148
Q

how do proteins enter cellular respiration

A

amino acids broken down (dispose of NH3) and in pyruvate oxidation to Acetyl CoA and Citric Acid Cycle.

149
Q

how do fats enter cellular respiration

A

fats split into fatty acid and glycerol; glycerol provides Pi for glycolysis and fatty acid -> Acetyl CoA

150
Q

aerobic

A

with oxygen

151
Q

anerobic

A

without oxygen

152
Q

fermentation (2 types)

A

1) lactic acid fermentation
2)ethanol fermentation
way to get NAD+ back from NADH without O2

153
Q

lactic acid fermentation

A

reduce pyruvate with e- from NADH; yields 2 lactate + 2NAD+ + 2ATP
*lactic acid can turn back to pyruvate when oxygen is present

154
Q

ethanol fermentation

A

take CO2 off pyruvate -> oxidize and yield ethanol, 2NAD+ and 2 ATP

155
Q

ATP production respiration vs fermentation

A

respiration: 30-36 ATP per glucose
fermentation: 2 ATP per glucose

156
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

e- from ETC taken off my different e- acceptors (not O2)
ex. CO2, S, SO4, etc

157
Q

phototroph

A

organisms that get their energy from the sun

158
Q

chemotroph

A

organisms that get their energy from molecules

159
Q

heterotroph

A

organisms that get an organic carbon

160
Q

autotrophs

A

organisms that get an inorganic carbon source-> turn into usable organic carbon on own.

161
Q

chloroplast

A

semi autonomic organelle in plants and some protists (single celled eukaryotes) used to undergo photosynthesis

162
Q

stroma

A

space inside the inner membrane of chloroplasts

163
Q

Thylakoid

A

membrane wrapped disks/ flattened stacks called gana

164
Q

lumen

A

part of chloroplast where thylakoids are

165
Q

photosynthesis: light reaction

A

use light energy to make ATP

166
Q

photosynthesis: dark reaction

A

use ATP as an energy source to make energy for cell

167
Q

Photosystems

A

use light to excite and donate e- to e- acceptor -> run through ETC
*photosystem 2 then photosystem 1

168
Q

pigments

A

absorb/ collect light energy
*main pigment is chlorophyll a

169
Q

why are leaves green

A

chlorophyll a pigment does not absorb green light; green light reflected back
*fall leaves different colors because other pigments absorb different wavelengths of light

170
Q

accessory pigments

A

chlorophyll b, carotenoids, etc

171
Q

photosystems 2

A

place where donated e- replaced by stealing e- from H2O

172
Q

oxygenic

A

generates oxygen

173
Q

photosystem 2 products

A

2e- , 2 H+ , 1/2 O2

174
Q

how does photosystem 2 work?

A

gives high energy e- to ETC and pumps H+ into thylakoid; used H+ gradient to drive ATP synthase

175
Q

photosystem 1

A

excites low energy e- from ETC (after pumping H+) using light energy
*2 schemes

176
Q

photosystem 1: non cyclical/ Z scheme

A

excited e- go to NADP+ to make NADPH -> goes to calvin cycle
*makes ATP VIA H+ PUMPS AND NADPH

177
Q

photosystem 1: cyclical scheme

A

takes excited e- back to proton pump (cyclical) -> uses them to pump H+ -> H+ gradient drives ATP synthase
*maes ATP W/OUT NADPH ELECTRON CARRIERS

178
Q

does the cyclical or non cyclical scheme of photosystem 1 make more ATP?

A

cyclical scheme

179
Q

what inputs are needed for the calvin cycle

A

9 ATP and 6 NADPH (*more ATP!)

180
Q

Calvin Cycle job

A

fixes (binds/adds) inorganic carbon from CO2 to organic molecules to build them up

181
Q

calvin cycle 3 steps

A

1) carbon fixation
2)reduction
3)regeneration

182
Q

calvin cycle: carbon fixation

A

rubisco enzyme adds CO2 to RuBP (5-carbon structure) -> to yield 3-carbon structures

*to get product, 3 carbons are needed so CO2 added 3 times (run cycle 3 times)

183
Q

calvin cycle: reduction

A

use e- from 6 NADPH and 6 ATP to produce 6 G3P (3-carbon) which is used to make sugars

184
Q

calvin cycle: regeneration

A

5 of the 6 G3P’s use 3 ATP to regenerate 3 RuBP (5-carbon structures)

185
Q

rubisco

A

enzyme that adds CO2 to RuBP (5-carbon); performs carbon fixation

186
Q

photorespiration

A

brings in O2 rather than CO2; breaks down sugar into CO2 rather than building sugars
*alternate to Calvin cycle

187
Q

when does photorespiration happen

A

when there is more O2 than CO2; ratio is messed up
*specifically impacts land plants!!

188
Q

How to keep CO2 conc high/ limit photorespiration

A

C4 and CAM: fix and store CO2 and release before Calvin cycle
*temporary other source of CO2; increases conc of CO2 relative to conc of oxygen

189
Q

LCA

A

last common ancestor

190
Q

anoxygenic photosynthesis

A

e- from H2, HS, Fe2+ instead of H2O

191
Q

archaea photosynthesis

A

use bacteriorhodopsin (a light-driven proton pump, transporting protons out of the cell, and exemplifies vectorial catalysis) but no PS1 or PS2

192
Q

elements of metabolism shared by all 3 domains of life

A

glycolysis, citric acid cycle/ reverse citric acid cycle, ATP synthase / ETC (chemiosmosis) and *fermentation

193
Q

Chemolithotropes

A

get their energy from minerals/ high energy e- from inorganic molecules
*“rock eaters”
ex. deep ocean organisms (no sunlight)

194
Q

anaerobic fermentation

A

energy and e- from ORGANIC molecules use organic molecules as acceptors (not O2)
*substrate level phosphorylation

195
Q

chromosomes

A

in nucleus; 2 of each type in parent cell -> after meiosis, only 1 of each in daughter cell
*map genes along different positions along chromosomes

196
Q

one gene one enzyme hypothesis

A

one mutated gene affects only 1 biochemical reaction and 1 specific enzyme/protein
*genes instructions for making proteins

197
Q

what are chromosomes made up of

A

DNA and proteins

198
Q

tetranucleotide model

A

only, WRONG theory that said that 4 different nucleotides just attached in a four way attachment

199
Q

Avery 1944 experiment

A

take smooth cell (with cell wall) and remove proteins and RNA with protease and RNAse to see if rough -> smooth transformation still occurs
*negative result! transformation still occurs

200
Q

rough to smooth bacteria transformation

A

smooth bacteria DNA exposed to rough bacteria -> interpreted ito rough bacteria -> transformation of colony

201
Q

rules for genetic discovery experiments (validity)

A

1) testable hypothesis
2) Occams Razor
3)neutral laws don’t change reproductivity

202
Q

Occam’s Razor

A

simplest explanation of facts in best

203
Q

Virus

A

particle (NOT CELL!!) that contains proteins and genetic material (nucleic acids); take over host cell machinery to make viral proteins

204
Q

bacteriophage

A

virus that infects bacteria; take over and destroy

205
Q

Hershey-Chase 1952

A

infects bacteria with virus and makes either protein or DNA radioactive to pinpoint which macromolecule goes in bacteria
*2 experiments

206
Q

how to make proteins radioactive

A

35 S

207
Q

how to make DNA radioactive

A

32 P

208
Q

chargaff’s analysis of DNA (1947)

A
  • 4 different nucleotides present in different conc
    -conc of each nucleotide varies between species
    -nucleotides are code for carrying material
209
Q

chargaff’s rule

A

%A = %T
%C = %G

210
Q

C4 mechanism

A

neighboring cells releases stored co2 to cells undergoing photosynthesis -> co2 can out compete o2

211
Q

CAM mechanism

A

during night time (not doing photosynthesis) store co2 and store in chloroplast

Bio 151 (7 decks)

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