EXAM #1 Flashcards
The scientific study of human social relations, groups, and societies.
- Systematic inquiry into how society influences behavior, social interactions, and social institutions
Sociology
Sociologists adhere to the principles of _
social embeddedness
The perspective that economic, political, and other forms of human behavior are fundamentally shaped by social relations.
social embeddedness
2 key foundational principals of sociology
- Social imagination
- Critical thinking
The ability to grasp the relationship between individual lives and the larger social forces that help to shape them
- Think of both individual and environmental/social
explanations
Social imagination
The ability of individuals and groups to exercise free will and to influence social change on a small or large scale
agency
Patterned social arrangements that have an effect of agency
structure
The ability to evaluate claims by using reason and
evidence
critical thinking
6 rules of critical thinking
- Be willing to ask any question, no matter how difficult
- Think logically and be clear
- Back arguments with evidence
- Think about assumptions and biases in your own and the work before you
- Avoid anecdotal evidence
- Be willing to admit when your wrong/the results do not support the hypothesis
The 3 sociological theoretical paradigms
- The functionalism perspective
- Social conflict perspective
- Symbolic interactionism
A sociological theory that explains social organization and change in terms of the roles performed by different social structures, phenomena, and institutions
- Society is made up of distinct, interrelated parts, each which serve a function in the overall society
structural functionalism
Functions of an object, an institution, or a phenomenon that are obvious or intended
Manifest function
Functions of an object, an institution, or a
phenomenon that are not recognized or expected
Latent functions
A theory that seeks to explain social organization and change in terms of conflict that is built into social relations
- When one class of people use their power ($, access to institutions) to control access to desired resources over another class of people
social conflict paradigm
Social conflict perspective 2 key ideas
- original thoughts involved concentrations of wealth (Marx)
- Later ideas focused on who has access to important institutions (Ex: courts, education)
A microsocial perspective that posits both the individual self and society as a whole are the products of social interactions based on symbols
symbolic interactionism
Any gesture, sign, object, signal, or word that has a
shared understanding in a given society.
- People use symbols to understand their social world and adjust their behavior
Symbols
5 Pioneers of sociology
- Auguste Comte
- Emile Durkheim
- Karl Marx
- Max Weber
- W.E.B. Du Bois
- Founded sociology
- Believed the scientific study of society could help manage the social change.
- Social Revolutions
- Early positivists
- 2 key pillars:
– social statics
– social dynamics
Auguste Comte
- Established what sociology would study
- Important ideas:
– social solidarity
– norms
– anomie
Emile Durkheim
Science that is based on facts alone
positivism
The way society is held together
social statics
The laws that govern social
change
social dynamics
What held us together
social solidarity
Accepted social behavior and beliefs
norms
a social condition of normlessness that occurs when people lose touch with the shared rules and values that give order and meaning to their lives
anomie
- Father of conflict perspective with his discussions of class conflict, where one class prospers at the expense of another
- Named 2 classes of people:
– Proletariat
– Bourgeoisie
Karl Marx
competition between social classes over the distribution of wealth, power, and other valued resources in society
class conflict
The working class, wage workers
Proletariat
The capitalist class (property-owning)
Bourgeoisie
Focused on 2 key things:
1. Predicted the world would organize into bureaucracies, creating an iron cage
2. Believed that any adequate explanation of
the social world takes into account the meaning of what people do and say
Max Weber
- Introduced the study of class, race, and identity to sociology
- Double consciousness
W.E.B. Du Bois
African Americans must be aware of the norms and values of both American and African American culture, never free of racial stigma.
- African Americans needed to be able to navigate both cultures to be gain acceptance in American society
Double consciousness
_ can influence how institutions function
- Findings can alter processes
- Change behaviors
- Turn into law!
Research
All sciences adhere to the _
scientific method
Learning about the world through logically
constructed theory and systematic examinations to explain how things work
scientific method
3 things necessary to be science
- Falsification
- replication
- Objectivity
Necessary to be science:
The ability of a theory to be tested and proved to be false
falsification
Necessary to be science:
The repetition of a previous study using a different sample or population to verify or refute the original finding
Replication
Necessary to be science:
The ability to represent the object of the study accurately without bias
Objectivity
A logical explanation of how or why a social phenomenon exits
Theory
A statement about the world, derived from theories, that can be falsified when tested
Hypothesis
A concept or factor that can take on multiple values
Variables
Ideas that summarize a set of phenomenon
Concepts
- Identify a research question based on theory
- Review past research
- Develop a hypothesis and a method to test it
- Gather and analyze data
*variables! - Report findings and hopefully apply the results
Research process
Research process:
1. Identify a research question based on _
theory
Research process:
2. Review _
past research
Research process:
3. Develop a _ and a method to test it
hypothesis
Research process:
4. Gather and analyze _
*variables!
data
Research process:
5. _ and hopefully apply the results
Report findings
2 types of research methods
- Quantitative
- Qualitative
Type of research method:
Data is collected and quantified into numbers for analysis
Quantitative
Type of research method:
Data is gathered that focuses on the experiential nature of a phenomenon to provide in-depth knowledge about a given topic
Qualitative
Sociology employs 3 main data collection methods
- Field studies
- Participant observation
- Secondary data analysis of existing statistics (document analysis, large scale survey results)
2 types of relationships between variables
- correlational relationship
- causal relationship
Type of relationships between variables:
The degree to which two (or more) variables are associated with one another
- positive vs negative
X <—-> Y
Correlational relationship
Type of relationships between variables:
One variable has a direct effect to cause a change in another variable
X —-> Z —-> Y
Causal relationship
3 approaches to sociological research
- Positivism
- Interpretive research
- critical research
Approach to sociological research:
Is how sociology approaches gathering knowledge
Positivism
Approach to sociological research:
Research from an experience-near perspective; in that the researcher does not start with concepts determined a priori (i.e., a prior hypothesis) but rather seeks to allow these to emerge from encounters in “the field”
Interpretive research
Approach to sociological research:
Capacity to inquire ‘against the grain’; to question the conceptual and theoretical bases of knowledge, design research that go beyond prevailing assumptions and
understandings
Critical research
Where does the research get discussed
- Presentations at Universities
- Conferences
- Journals/Books
- Large media outlets
The beliefs, norms, behaviors, and products common to the members of a particular group that brings meaning to their social world
culture
Cultures that exist together with a dominant culture but differ in some important respects
subculture
All “cultures” consist of 4 components
- symbols
- language
- values
- norms
Any gesture, sign, object, signal, or word that has a shared understanding in a given society
symbol
_ are used to indicate how we should behave
- are culturally specific
symbols
Cultural symbols can be represented in 2 ways
- material culture
- nonmaterial culture
The physical objects that are created, embraced, or consumed by society that help shape people’s lives
material culture
The abstract creations of human culture, including language, ideas about behavior, and social practice
nonmaterial culture
Language is a _
symbol
Symbolic system of verbal, nonverbal, and written representations
- vehicles for conveying meaning
language
Language and culture are _
- Ex: “De Nada”
interrelated
Cultural values influence _
social norms
The abstract and general standards in society that define ideal principles, such as those governing notions of right and wrong
values
A particular idea that people accept as true
Beliefs
Accepted social behaviors and beliefs
norms
The 3 elements of culture (top to bottom)
- Values
- Beliefs
- Norms
3 types of norms
- Folkways
- Mores
- Taboos
Daily weak norms that are passed down from the past, the violation of which is generally not considered serious within a particular culture
- small infractions that earns us negative symbolic messages
Folkways
Strongly held norm, the violation of which seriously offends the standards of acceptable conduct of most people within a particular culture
- infractions that cause people not to want to interact with us
mores
Powerful more, the violation of which is considered serious and even unthinkable within a particular culture
- usually associated with the law and considered a crime
taboos
Society has an _ it wants to uphold
image
The values, norms, and behaviors that people in a given society profess to embrace
ideal culture
The values, norms, and behaviors that people in a society actually embrace and exhibit
real culture
A contradiction between the goals of ideal culture and the practices of real culture
cultural inconsistency
Culture used to be _
- Most communities were isolate until the last few hundred years
localized
Only recently has a global culture been possible
- Three factors facilitated globalization
- Travel
- Economics
- Media
The process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and mutual sharing, and other aspects of culture
Globalization
A type of culture, some would say US culture, that has spread across the world in the form of mass media and restaurants that unify the cultures of various countries
Global culture
Facilitating globalization factor:
We have been thrust together in a relatively short amount of time in relation to human history
- Limited until recently
- Water ways and hoofed animals were the only form of travel from 40,000 B.C. until 1850s
Travel
Facilitating globalization factor:
_ changed the world
- Six months to traverse the California Trail with covered
wagons pulled by oxen.
- Trains cut it to a week in 1850
- Cars can make it in 25 hours
- Fly it in 3 hours
- Video conference in regular time
Modern Transportation
Facilitating globalization factor:
Travel has allowed the world to share goods and services
Economics
Facilitating globalization factor:
3 reasons for economics expansion
- Increase customer base
- Cheaper goods made
elsewhere
- in countries transitioning from agrarian to industrialization - Better products made
elsewhere
- global economic interdependence
Global economic interdependence:
Countries markets are intertwined - _ vs _
shallow vs deep integration
Global economic interdependence:
One country makes a product and exports it
shallow integration
Global economic interdependence:
Many parts made in many nations
deep integration
Global economic interdependence:
Almost every single large
purchase we make is made
up of parts from _
- Planes
- Cars
- Garments and Apparel
- Air Conditioners
several countries (deep integration)
Facilitating globalization factor:
_ is a powerful reflection of culture
media
Facilitating globalization factor:
sociologist study _ in multiple ways
- Bureaucratic institution
- Role Models
- “Agent of Socialization”
– Facilitator of learning
media
- Media can reflect who we are
- Media can influence behavior
the messages media sends
Facilitating globalization factor:
_ media is going global
mass
Facilitating globalization factor:
Media of public consumption intended to reach and influence a mass audience
mass media
Facilitating globalization factor:
Websites and applications that enable users to create and share content
Social media
Facilitating globalization factor:
Two types of media culture
- high culture
- popular culture
Facilitating globalization factor:
The music, theater, literature, food, and other
cultural products that are held in particularly high esteem in society
High culture
Facilitating globalization factor:
The music, theater, literature, food, and other
cultural products shared by the masses
Popular culture
How sociology studies culture:
Sociology researches culture through _
cultural relativism
How sociology studies culture:
The perspective of the
outside observer
Etic perspective
How sociology studies culture:
The perspective of the insider, the one belonging to the cultural group in question
Eric perspective
How sociology studies culture:
A worldview whereby the practices of a society are
understood sociologically in terms of that society’s norms and values, and not the norms and values of another society
Cultural relativism
How sociology studies culture:
Sociologist start with this perspective, then apply one of the three large theoretical paradigms to _
answer specific questions
Functionalist studying culture focus on 3 things
- How cultural values influence norms
- Social solidarity
- Agent of socialization
Research questions for _ would include
- How it guides our behavior and explains our place in society
- How culture of institutions influences success/satisfaction
- How culture changes as society changes
functionalist studying culture
Conflict perspective of
Culture:
Focuses on 3 key areas
- Use of power to ensure one culture subordinates
another culture
- Who has power to define what is normal (or the norm) and who is deviant - Intercultural misunderstandings
- slight misunderstandings
- larger value conflicts - Social class reproduction
- replication of class inequality
Symbolic interactionism perspective of culture:
Studies the symbols associated with culture
- Language and culture
- Differences in symbols across cultures
- How culture influences the specific socialization people receive, thereby influencing _
- the development of our identities
- life goals
- how we relate to others
The process by which people learn the culture
of their society
socialization
Socialization occurs _
- We start to learn norms before we are “kids”
- And continue until the end of our days
throughout our lifetime
Nature vs Nurture:
Nothing is totally _
- Artificial Intelligence
- Genie
biologically determined
Nature vs Nurture:
Even the most basic components of human life
require socialization
- From using the bathroom, learning language, to developing one’s sense of _
self and self identity
How we define ourselves is heavily influenced by _
society
These theories rest in the realm of _
- Mead, Cooley, and Goffman sought to define how society influences how we think about ourselves
symbolic interactionism
_ started many important thoughts…
- Societies influence the “birth of the social self”
- Stressed the importance of “roles”
Goffman
_ believed people are actors in their social world, and that socialization prepares us to play many roles
Goffman
People play different roles to manage the impressions of others
Presentation of the self
-> Sociology borrows from psychological theories to understand how people present themselves in relation to society
–> Behaviorism & social learning
—> Symbolic interactionism
Theories about how socialization leads to the
birth of the social self
A psychological perspective that emphasizes the effect of direct rewards and punishments on human behavior
- People are born as a blank slate
Behaviorism
Behaviorism theory:
- Pavlov’s Dog-Classical Conditioning
- Behavior is not thought, but a reaction to the
environment, just like all animals
- So one way humans are socialized is by _ for their
behavior…
receiving rewards and punishments
People learn through observing the rewards
and punishments provided for others’ behavior; thereby leading them to adapt their own behavior, attitudes and outcomes
Social learning
Social Learning Theory:
The second way we learn is _
observing other people
Social Learning Theory:
Every “symbol” we receive is embedded with _
- Use this to shape how we “act” and think of our “self”
positive or negative connotations
Symbolic Interaction
Theories of Socialization:
Symbolic Interactionist perspective the _
socialization of the self
Symbolic Interaction
Theories of Socialization:
The ability to take the roles of others in interactions to help guide behavior (Goffman)
Role Taking/Role Theory
Symbolic Interaction
Theories of Socialization:
The concept that our self image developed from
how we interpret other people’s view of us (Mead and Cooley)
Looking Glass Self
All theories focus on the _
Theory of cognitive development
The theory that an individual’s ability to make logical decisions increases as the person grows older (aka, into young adulthood)
Theory of cognitive development
_ we interact with shape how we think of ourselves
Groups
3 types of groups
- Primary group
- Secondary group
- Reference group
Smaller groups characterized by intense emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, intimacy, and a strong, enduring sense of
commitment
- e.g., immediate family, very close friends
Primary groups
Larger groups that are less personal and
characterized by fleeting relationships.
- e.g., school friends, the media
Secondary groups
Groups that provide standards for judging our
attitudes or behaviors
Reference groups
Which group depends on _
- early on family is the primary group, adolescents and young adulthood it’s secondary groups until…. you start your own family, where the focus will return to the primary group
where one is in life
6 agents of socialization
- The family
- School
- Peers
- Religion
- Work
- Media
Anything consisting of two people is a _
group
- therefore, we belong to many groups
All _ influence how we act and think
- Just being around other people unconsciously influences how we think and behave
groups
Power of groups:
Groups are how we define _
- We belong to many formal and informal groups
- All groups have cultures
- Each group we belong to is an “agent” of socializations
- Looking Glass Self
ourselves and determine how we are supposed to behave
Power of groups:
4 factors that influence group dynamics
- size
- authority (and power)
- conformity
- expected outcomes
Group size:
As group size _, intensity of relationships _
- increases
- decreases
Group size:
A group of two people
Dyad
Group size:
A group of three people
Triad
Group size:
Larger groups create _
problems
Group size:
A subgroup that forms between groups members,
enabling them to dominate the group in their own interest
Alliance
Group size:
The ability of a group to strategically and
consciously exclude outsiders or those deemed “undesirable” from participating in the group or enjoying the groups resources
Social closure
People who are able to influence the behavior
of other people
- styles vary
leaders
2 purposes of leadership
- Transformational leader
- Transactional leader
A leader who is able to instill in the members of group a sense of mission or higher purpose
Transformational leader
A leader who focuses on
supervision, organizations, and group performance.
- Create compliance through rewards and punishment
Transactional leader
The ability to mobilize resources and achieve a
goal despite the resistance of others
Power
3 types of power
- Legitimate authority
- Positional power
- personal power
Type of power:
A type of power that is
recognized as rightful by those over whom it is
exercised
Legitimate authority
Type of power:
A person’s power is
determined by their position in a group
Positional power
Type of power:
Person with the ability to persuade rather than relying on a position of power or ability to command
Personal power
How groups influence conformity:
People will alter their behaviors and attitudes to
conform the behaviors and attitudes of the group
Asch’s conformity theory
How groups influence conformity:
Subsequent studies found conformity increases when _
- more people are present
◦ A task becomes more difficult - And if the group members are high status
A process by which the members of a group ignore ways of thinking and plans of action that go against a perceived group consensus
Groupthink
Groupthink typically occurs when we _
- Expect a seriously negative outcome and
- ignore our concerns and go along with the group there is a perceived group consensus
Ordinary people will conform to orders given by someone in a position of power or authority, particularly when the authority is understood to take responsibility for the action (Milgram)
Ex of how this influences real life:
- Bosses at jobs
- Religious leaders
- Parents
Obedience to authority
Outcomes of groups: 3 capitals
- Economic capital
- cultural capital
- Social capital
Outcomes of groups: capital
Money and material that can be used to access valued goods and service
- The capital we most typically think of…
Economic capital
Outcomes of groups: capital
The values and traditions (lifestyle, behaviors, etc..) that can be used to accomplish goals or access goods and services
Cultural capital
Outcomes of groups: capital
The social knowledge and connections that enable people to accomplish their goals and extend their Influence
Social capital
A group that’s not organizationally
determined or influenced and usually formed by the
members themselves for
social purposes (Padilla)
Informal group
Any group that is deliberately formed by its
members or an external
authority for a specified purpose (Padilla)
Formal group
A group with an identifiable
membership that engages in concerted collective actions to achieve a common purpose
Organizations
An organization that is
rationally designed to achieve its objectives, often by means of explicitly rules, regulations, and procedures
Formal organizations
An inevitable process in the sociologists eyes
- we are surrounded by _
“organizations”
3 types of organizations
- Utilitarian organizations
- Coercive organizations
- Normative organizations
Type of organization:
An organization that people join primarily because of some material benefit they expect to receive
Utilitarian organizations
Type of organization:
Organization in which people are forced to give unquestioned obedience to authority
Coercive organizations
Type of organization:
Organization that people join of their own will to pursue morally worthwhile goals without expectation of material reward
Normative organizations
A type of formal organization based on written procedural rules, arranged into a clear hierarchy of authority, staffed by fulltime staff
Bureaucracies
Weber proposed this is how the world would _
- Technology is increasingly making this prediction true
- Mergers, Downsizing, and Automation
organize itself
_ are governed by rules and regulations that establish
divisions of labor, create hierarchies, and determine
behavior
Bureaucracies
4 written rules and regulations of Bureaucracies
- Specialized offices
- Hierarchy
- Impersonal record keeping
- Technically competent staff
Iron cage:
Weber argued that bureaucracies may create a _ of rules and regulations
prison
_ in bureaucratic structures built to serve us in the name of efficiency, ultimately, trap us by denying our humanity, creativity, and autonomy
“caged”
Problems that arise from Bureaucracies
- Waste and incompetence (Efficiency?)
- Trained Capacity (No independent thought or creativity)
- Goal Displacement (Lose sight of original goal)
- Iron Law of Oligarchy
_ have evolved into international
organizations and bureaucracies
Groups
2 types of international groups
- International Governmental Organization (NGO)
- International Nongovernmental Organization (INGO)
An international organization established by treaties between governments to facilitate and regulate trade between the member countries, promote national security, protect social welfare and human rights, or ensure environmental protection
International Governmental Organization (NGO)
An international organization established by
agreements between the individual or private organizations making up the membership and existing to fulfill an explicit mission
International Nongovernmental Organization (INGO
Robert Micheal’s theory that there is an inevitable tendency for a large-scale bureaucratic organization to become ruled undemocratically by a handful of people
Iron law of oligarchy
True or False:
Socialization is the process where children learn the culture of a given society.
False, we are socialized our entire lives
True or False:
Functionalism, Conflict, and Symbolic Interactionism are the three sociological perspectives used to examine social phenomenon in sociology.
True
True or False:
According to the video shown in class, Emile Durkheim original studies of functionalism focused on the association between industrialization and suicide
True
Patterned social arrangements that effects an individuals’ ability to exercise free will
Structure
The ability of individuals and groups to exercise free will and to influence social change
Agency
The ability to grasp the relationship between individual lives and the larger social forces that help to shape them
Sociological Imagination
The music, theater, literature, and other cultural products that are held in particularly high esteem in society.
High culture
A type of culture, some would say US culture, that has spread across the world in the form of mass media and businesses that unify the cultures of various countries
Global culture
A culture that exist together with a dominant culture but
differs in some important aspects from the dominant culture.
Subculture
Which of the following are necessary for a theory to be considered scientific?
a) Falsification
b) Replication
c) Objectivity
d) All of the above
d) All of the above
A _______________________ is a statement about the world derived from a larger theory that can be
falsified when tested.
a) variable
b) concept
c) hypothesis
d) none of the above
c) hypothesis
Cultural inconsistency is defined as the contradiction between the need to try to live up to the
____________________ of a given society as compared to the __________________ a society actually embraces
and exhibits.
a) urban culture: rural culture
b) ideal culture: real culture
c) rural culture: urban culture
d) real culture: ideal culture
b) ideal culture: real culture
Looking glass self and role taking theory are examples of sociological theories from the
___________________ perspective.
a) functionalist
b) conflict
c) symbolic interactionist
d) none of the above
c) symbolic interactionist
A person who leads by instilling a sense of mission or higher purpose among a group is called a __________?
a) legitimate authority
b) transformational leader
c) transactional leader
d) none of the above
b) transformational leader
