Exam 1 Flashcards
The systematic study of human society, the ways in which people are affected by and affect social structures and processes associated with the world in which they exist
Sociology
What is sociology’s point of view?
General patterns of society in the lives of particular people
“Sociology was to be the scientific study of social facts, or those things that transcend or are bigger than ourselves”
Emile Durkheim
Any way of active, whether fixed or not, capable of exerting over the individual an external constraint, which is general over the whole of a given society
Social fact
The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of the same society
Collective conscious (Durkheim)
The person who asked the question, of how the average person understands their everyday life- sociological imagination
C Wright Mills
The vivid awareness of the relationship between personal experience and the wider society
Sociological imagination (C Wright Mills)
Person who suggested that sociologists look for general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals (social forces)
Peter Berger
While not erasing our uniqueness as individuals, what impinges on our lives in many unseen, yet significant ways
Social forces
The study of the larger world and our society’s place in it
Global perspective
Considered the father of sociology, believed that the scientific method could be applied to the study of human behavior and society, and could produce knowledge of society based on scientific evidence
Auguste Comte
Using science to predict and control human behavior; society operates according to certain laws
Social physics (Comte)
What are the three stages of sociology?
Theological (expressed by God’s will), Metaphysical (natural rather than supernatural phenomena), Scientific (knowledge is based on science)
A scientific approach based on positive facts as opposed to mere speculation
Positivism (Comte)
A set of interrelated ideas that have a wide range of applications, deal with centrally important issues, and have stood the test of time
Theory
Approach to the study of society that focuses on the relationships between social structures and institutions rather than between individuals themselves; the study of social systems
Macrosociology
Approach to the study of society that focuses on the nature of people’s interactions within particular groups; the study of social interactions
Microsociology
A framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose interrelated parts work together to promote solidarity and stability; addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its norms
Structural-FUnctional perspective
A set of ideas about the proper response to an important societal problem; an accepted compilation of statuses, roles, values, and norms that respond to important societal needs
Social institution
Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior; patterns in how people behave in their relationships with one another
Social structure
The consequences of a social pattern for the operations of society as a whole
Social function
The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern
Manifest function (Merton)
The unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern
Latent function (Merton)
Any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society
Social dysfunction
A framework for building theory that stresses the root of social problems lies in social inequalities; assumes that society is composed of a group of people who are in competition for scarce resources
Social conflict approach
Thesis vs anti-thesis = synthesis
Dialectic
Believed that the owners (Bourgeoisie) and working class (Proletariat) struggled from a division of labor that produced labor inequality
Karl Marx conflict approach
The study of society that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men
Feminism
The study of society that focuses on inequality between people of different racial and ethnic categories
Racism
Founded the NAACP and Atlanta Sociological Laboratory; also produced the concepts of double consciousness and The Veil
WEB Dubois
Two levels of visions at all times- conscious of how they view themselves and conscious of how other people view them
Double consciousness
The literal darker skin of black Americans, the inability of white people to see black Americans as true Americans, and black people’s lack of clarity to see themselves outside of what white America prescribes them
The Veil
A framework for building theory that sees society as the product of everyday interactions of people; society is nothing more than the reality that people construct for themselves as they interact with one another
Symbolic Interaction approach
Developed the symbolic interaction approach of the dramaturgical self we have many roles and many stages (but must play the correct role on the correct stage)
Erving Goffman
Explain the 7 elements of the performance of the dramaturgical self
1) The actor must believe in the role their playing
2) The actor wears a mask in order to control the manner in which the audience perceives them
3) Dramatic realization is a portrayal of aspects of the performer that they want the audience to know
4) A performance presents an idealized view of the situation
5) Maintenance of expressive control- the need to stay in character
6) Misrepresentation- the danger of conveying the wrong message
7) Deception- concealment of certain information from the audience
Groups of individuals who cooperate with each other in order to share the same stage- must share information and have inside knowledge (not be fooled by other’s performances)
Teams
What are the 3 stages of the dramaturgical self?
1) Front stage- where the actor performs and adheres to conventions
2) Backstage- where performers are present but the audience is not (can step out of character)
3) Offstage- Outside, where actors meet the audience independently (can give specific performances
Prevent or restrict movement of individuals between various stages (must know when and how to move stages)
Borders
The function assumed or part played by a person or thing in a particular situation (can have many)
Role
What are the 3 ways to do sociology?
Positivist, Interpretive, Critical
The study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Positivist sociology
A logical systems that develops knowledge from direct, systematic observations
Science
Information that we can verify with our senses
Empirical evidence
Mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form
Concept
A concept whose value changes from case to case
Variable
A variable that is thought to cause a change in another variable
Independent variable
A variable that is thought to be influenced by another variable
Dependent variable
A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Measurement
Consistency in measurement
Reliability
Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure
Validity
A relationship in which the value of two or more variables change together
Correlation
Personal neutrality
Objectivity
The study of the society that focuses on discovering the meanings people attach to their social world; social actions can be understood only by interpreting the motives and meaning that guide individual actions
Interpretive sociology
Research that relies on numerical or statistical data for calculating findings; measures behaviors with little or no concern for the meaning people attach to those behaviors
Quantitative data
Research that is typically used in cases where one is taking an interpretative approach; seeks to gain an understanding of things from the point of view of the people being studied
Qualitative data
A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
Experiment
A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions on a questionnaire or in an interview
Survey method
A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities
Participant observation
The study of society that focuses on the need for social change
Critical sociology
The ways of thinking, acting, and material objects that form a people’s way of life (also the languages and symbols they use to construct their understanding of the world)
Culture
Intangible elements of culture- ideas
Nonmaterial culture
Physical objects created by members of society that influence the ways in which people live
Material culture
People who interact in a defined territory and share a culture
Society
What is the difference between society and culture?
Culture is part of society
Personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
Culture shock
Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture
Symbols
Any vehicle of meaning (marks on a paper, voice inflections)
Signifier
The analysis of nonverbal cultural meanings
Semiotics
A system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another; the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society
Language
The process by which one generation passes culture to the next
Cultural transmission
Culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and serve as broad guidelines for social living
Values
Specific ideas that people hold to be true; statements people make about values
Beliefs/Attitudes
Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members
Norms
Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance; important norms whose violation is likely met with severe negative sanctions
Mores
Norms for routine or casual interaction; relatively unimportant norms carrying very few if any sanctions
Folkways
Society’s most important social norms; even the thought of violating a these is deeply repugnant
Taboo
The knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings; the interplay of machines, tools, skills, and procedures for the accomplishment of tasks
Technology
Consist of small numbers of people gaining their livelihood from hunting, fishing, and gathering of edible plants; rank is based on age and gender
Hunting and gathering
Small rural communities without towns or cities (stronger inequalities than hunting/gathering)
Pastoral/Agrarian
The use of hand tools to raise crops
Horticulture
The domestication of animals
Pastoralism
The production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery
Industrialization
The production of information using computer technology
Post-industrialism
Cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite
High culture
Cultural patterns that are widespread among a population
Pop culture
Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population; something most people are involved in at least one
Subculture
Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society
Counterculture
A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the US and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions
Multiculturalism
The practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
Ethnocentrism
The belief that other people and their ways of doing things can be understood only in terms of the cultural context of those other people (the opposite of ethnocentrism)
Cultural relativism
The belief that other people of different cultures borrow elements of material or nonmaterial culture from one another
Cultural diffusion
The dominance of European cultural patterns
Eurocentrism
Emphasizing and promoting African cultural patterns
Afrocentrism
The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system
Cultural integration
The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, disrupting a cultural system
Cultural lag (Ogburn)
A flow of goods, information, and people around the world
Global culture
Traits that are part of every known culture
Cultural universals
Occurs when different cultures come to seem alike as a result of a great deal of cultural diffusion
Cultural leveling
The theoretical approach that explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture
Sociobiology
The transformation of culture and social institutions over time; can be intentional or unplanned
Social change
What are the causes for social change?
1) Invention of new objects, ideas, or patterns
2) Disaster (an event that causes extensive harm)
3) Diffusion- spread of things/ideas from one culture to another
4) Discovery of new, existing elements of the world
5) Inequality and conflict
6) New ideas
7) Demographic issues
Activity involving a large number of people that is unplanned, often controversial, and can bring about change
Collective behavior
A temporary gathering of people who share common focus of attention and who influence one another
Crowd
A highly emotional crowd that pursues violent or destructive goals
Mob
A social eruption that is highly emotional, violent, and undirected
Riot
Unconfirmed information that people spread informally, by word of mouth
Rumor
Social patterns favored by a large number of people
Fashion
An unconventional pattern that people embrace briefly but enthusiastically
Fad
An organized activity in which people set out to encourage or discourage social change
Social movement
Type of social movement to help people alter their lives; limited change in only part of the population
Alterative
Type of social movement to help certain people redeem themselves/lives
Redemptive
Type of social movement with limited change to target everyone
Reformative
Type of social movement with the most extreme change of all; major transformation of an entire society
Revolutionary
The process of trying to convince the public and public officials of the importance of joining a social movement to address a particular issue
Claims making
The experience of being deprived of something to which one believes to be entitled; discontentment people feel when they compare their positions to others
Deprivation theory
Social movements attract socially isolated people who join a movement in order to gain a sense of belonging, identity, and purpose
Mass society theory
Links the success of any social movement to the resources that are available to it
Resource mobilization theory
Social movements depend not only on money and other material resources but also cultural symbols
Culture theory
Points out the distinctive character of recent social movements in postindustrial societies
New social movements theory
A Marxist approach that claims that social movements arise in opposition to the capitalist economic system, which fails to meet the needs of the majority of the people
Political economy theory
What are the stages in social movements?
1) Coalescence- when a social movement defines itself and develops a strategy for attracting new members
2) Bureucratization- a movement becomes established
3) Decline- Resources dry up, overwhelming opposition, or achieved goals causes a loss of interest and the movement becomes a part of the “system”
The process of social change begun by industrialization
Modernization
The skill of understanding others as the understand themselves
Sociological sympathy
The set of moral principles that guide empirical inquiry
Research ethics
The work of using sociological theory to make societies better
Public sociology
Points of view grounded in lived reality
Standpoints
The process by which we layer objects with ideas, fold concepts into one another, and build connections between them
Social construction
An influential and shared interpretation of reality that will vary across time and space
Social construct
The idea that we’re socialized into culturally specific moralities that guide our feelings about right and wrong
Culture-as-value thesis
The idea that we’re socialized to know a set of culturally specific arguments with which we can justify why we feel something is right or wrong
Culture-as-rationale thesis
The practice of noticing the differences between cultures without passing judgment
Cultural relativism
A version of ourselves that we want to project in a specific setting
Face
The power of noncooperation; controlled by the masses to halt production
Interdependent power
Shared activities widely recognized as expressions of dissatisfaction with social conditions
Repertoire of contention
A recognition of a shared grievance that can be addressed through collective action
Insurgent consciousness
The authority to speak credibly on a particular topic
Standing
A succinct claim as to the nature of a social fact; an assertion that an event or issue is a case of a particular thing and not a case of something else
Frame
Frames meant to challenge an existing social movement’s frame
Counter-frames
Battles over whether a social fact is a social problem and what kind of problem it is
Framing wars
The strengths and weaknesses in the existing political system that shape the options available to social movement actors
Political opportunity structure
Cultural ideas, objects, practices, or bodies that create or constrain activist strategies
Cultural opportunity structure
A sudden and dramatic occurrence that motivates non-activists to become politically active
Critical event
The role of money in enabling or limiting a movement’s operations and influence
Economic opportunity structure
The alignment of the interests of activists and elites
Interest convergence
