Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

BIOL1412- diversity of form and function > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is DNA?

A

material of inheritance that is common to all organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what is evidence that all organisms evolved from a single common ancestor?

A

DNA is common to all organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

what is the most accurate measure of relatedness?

A

how similar genomes are

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

what was the first genetic material that was widely compared?

A

rRNA sequences

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

life depends on ______ synthesis.

A

protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what functions to make proteins?

A

ribosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

genes for rRNA evolve _________.

A

very slowly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

why were rRNA the first widely compared sequences?

A

the length of the sequences are ideal and they evolve very slowly

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

_____ confirmed many previous classification schemes.

A

sequencing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

what is archaea more closely related to?

A

eukaryotes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

what are eukaryotes?

A

cells with a nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

what are prokaryotes?

A

cells without a nucleus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

archaea were originally thought to be what?

A

a type of bacteria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

what are the 3 domains of life?

A

bacteria, archaea, and eukarya

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

why are dyes used to visualize bacteria?

A

bacteria are hard to see even at 100X

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what is gram staining?

A

using violet, then red dye

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

what does gram positive mean?

A

the cell wall of a bacteria takes up the violet dye (and looks purple)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

what does gram negative mean?

A

the cell wall of a bacteria is underneath an outer membrane (and appears pink from the red counterstain)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

what is (and isn’t) gram staining useful for?

A

useful for identification, but not for phylogenies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

how does gram staining work?

A

the purple dye sticks to the peptidoglycan in the cell wall when it is on the outside of the cell, but not when it is between layers of membranes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

where are prokaryotes found?

A

everywhere on earth, even in extreme environments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what are the 3 shapes of bacteria?

A

coccus (spheres), bacillus (rods), and helix (spiral)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what are ways that bacteria can move?

A

by using flagella, twisting, or gliding (and some don’t move)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

how do bacteria communicate?

A

by chemicals or light

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

what is quorum sensing?

A

bacteria monitor the amount of their specific species of bacteria there are, and can tell when there is a minimum amount present to form a biofilm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

what is a biofilm formation?

A

aggregation of bacteria to protect the bacteria (hard for antibiotics to work)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

prokaryotes are often ____cellular.

A

uni

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

even though prokaryotes are often single celled, they often live in _____.

A

colonies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

how do prokaryotes reproduce?

A

fission (asexual reproduction)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

what is horizontal/lateral gene transfer?

A

genetic material moves between organisms, not through generations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

what is vertical gene transfer?

A

genetic material moves generation to generation, like in multicellular organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

what is DNA transfer by conjugation?

A

DNA (a plasmid) from a living donor cell is transferred to a recipient cell via a pilus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

what is DNA transfer by transformation?

A

DNA is released into the environment by a dead cell, and is then taken up by a living recipient cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

what is DNA transfer by transduction?

A

DNA is transferred from a donor cell to a recipient cell via a virus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

what effect does lateral gene transfer have on phylogenies?

A

it complicates them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

True or False: all prokaryotes require oxygen for survival.

A

False- some live in oxygen-free environments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

what are obligate anaerobes?

A

organisms that must be in environments without oxygen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

what are obligate aerobes?

A

organisms that must be in environments with oxygen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

what are facultative anaerobes?

A

organisms that can be in environments that do or do not have oxygen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

what are photoautotrophs?

A

organisms that feed themselves using light

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

what are photoheterotrophs?

A

organisms that harvest energy from light but rely on sugars made by organisms for food

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

what are chemoheterotrophs?

A

organisms that feed on other organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

what are chloroplasts evolved from?

A

symbiotic cyanobacteria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

what type of organisms was responsible for converting Earth’s atmosphere to aerobic in the ancient past?

A

photoautotrophs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

what are decomposers?

A

organisms that break down dead bodies- they return carbon to the soil and atmosphere

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

what are nitrogen fixers?

A

organisms that convert N2 from the atmosphere into NH3 (ammonia)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

what are nitrifying bacteria?

A

NH3 -> NO2 -> NO3

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

what is denitrifying?

A

organic nitrogen is converted to N2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

True or False: all prokaryotes are harmful in the form of pathogens.

A

False- some are beneficial, and some are neutral, and some are unknown

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

what is an example of beneficial prokaryotes?

A

legume roots house nitrogen-fixing bacteria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

what is an example of harmful prokaryotes?

A

agrobacterium in plants that causes crown galls

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

the human body harbors ____ bacterial cells as human cells.

A

4X

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Only a tiny percentage of prokaryotes are ________.

A

pathogens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

how do pathogens cause disease?

A

invade the body, evade the immune system, multiply, and produce toxins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

what are endotoxins?

A

they expose the host to the pathogen when bacteria lyse (when the immune system kills the bacteria)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

what are exotoxins?

A

they are released by living bacteria (an active pathogen- the immune system can’t fight it well)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

which form of toxin can the human body tolerate more?

A

endotoxins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

what are some symptoms of endotoxins?

A

fever, vomiting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

what are some symptoms of exotoxins?

A

they are highly poisonous or fatal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

what are viruses?

A

small molecules composed of protein-coated DNA or RNA, encoding a small number of proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

what is the best evidence that viruses are not alive?

A

they are acellular

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

though viruses are not alive, they ______

A

mutate, evolve, interact with other organisms, and are derived from other organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

how are viruses classified?

A

based on nucleic acid type (DNA or RNA)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

what are positive sense RNA viruses?

A

the genome is also a template for translation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

what are some examples of positive sense RNA viruses?

A

rhinovirus, polio, covid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

what are negative sense RNA viruses?

A

the complement to the genome is the template for translation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

what is RNA-dependent RNA polymerase?

A

it makes the complementary strand upon infection, which is the template for translation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

what are examples of negative sense RNA viruses?

A

rabies, measles, mumps

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

what is an RNA retrovirus?

A

RNA is used to make a DNA copy (reverse of the normal flow of info) via reverse transcriptase, then pro-viral DNA is integrated into the host’s genome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

which virus type is specific to vertebrate animals?

A

RNA retrovirus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

what is an example of an RNA retrovirus?

A

HIV

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

what are examples of DNA viruses?

A

smallpox, herpes, and a bacteriophage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

what are main features of eukaryotes?

A

they have an organized nucleus (with linear chromosomes and a membrane), and contain organelles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

what are organelles?

A

membranes associated with specialized functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

what do vesicles do?

A

move materials in and out of the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

what does cellular movement in eukaryotes rely on?

A

predation, changing shapes, and an increase in size

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

which organelles are believed to have originated via endosymbiosis?

A

chloroplasts and mitochondria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

eukaryotes have a _______ relationship with prokaryotes.

A

symbiotic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

what is characteristic of eukaryotic DNA molecules?

A

they are linear with multiple origins of replication and carry many genes and regulatory regions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

all eukaryotes have a ______ life cycle.

A

sexual

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

gametes have _____ the normal chromosome number because of meiosis.

A

1/2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

what is the fusion of gametes called?

A

fertilization

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

what increases diversity?

A

sex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

what produces variations in life cycles?

A

haploid and diploid phases can be persistent or brief that depend on timing of meiosis and fertilization

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

what are large eukaryotes?

A

plants, animals, and fungi

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

what are small eukaryotes?

A

protists (usually single-celled)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

multicellularity allows for what?

A

specialization (increased efficiency), greater size, and mortality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

what are the 3 main superkingdoms?

A

plants, animals and fungi, and protists

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

characteristics of opisthokonts

A

single flagellum on the back end of the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

what organisms are opisthokonts?

A

animals, fungi, and choanoflagellates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

opisthokonts are _____cellular

A

uni and multi-

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

what are choanoflagellates?

A

cells that can be colonial, which can be believed to be the first step toward multicellularity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

what could be considered to be the ancestor to animals?

A

choanoflagellates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

what are main characteristics of fungi?

A

cell wall made of chitin, absorptive heterotrophy (they digest food in the environment then reabsorb the molecules it needs for cellular respiration), feeding on living or dead organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

why are fungal infections in animals difficult to treat?

A

many fungicides are toxic to animal cells because of how closely related animals and fungi are

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

what are single-celled fungi?

A

yeasts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

what are hyphae?

A

strands of fungi together that make up mushrooms (look kind of like roots)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

what are the 2 main parts of mushrooms?

A

underground- mycelium
aboveground- fruiting body (makes spores in gills)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

what are fungal plant pathogens?

A

rusts and smuts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

fungi can be beneficial, what is an example?

A

symbiosis of mycorrhizal fungi that allow trees to take up more minerals from the soil

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

what are lichens?

A

fungus + green algae or cyanobacterium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

characteristics of amoebozoans

A

use pseudopods for motility and have a flexible membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

what are 3 examples of amoebazoans?

A

amoeba, physarum, and dictyostelium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
104
Q

what is amoeba?

A

a lobosean that lives in fresh water; eats via phagocytosis and is a scavenger and predator

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
105
Q

what is physarum?

A

a plasmodial slime mold found in forests; they disperse, then aggregate to form fruiting bodies and form spores by meiosis, they are scavengers that move by cytoplasmic streaming

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
106
Q

what is dictyostelium?

A

a cellular slime mold with amoeba-like single cells that aggregate into a “slug” when dry or starved; the cells are retained and form spores

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
107
Q

amoebazoans are _____cellular.

A

(mostly) uni

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
108
Q

characteristics of rhizarians

A

unicellular aquatic organisms with long pseudopods (that look kind of like roots)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
109
Q

what are 2 types of rhizarians?

A

foraminiferans and radiolarians

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
110
Q

what are foraminiferans?

A

have an external shell of calcium carbonate, and are a source of limestone when they decompose over time; pseudopods ensnare plankton for food

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
111
Q

what are radiolarians?

A

have glassy endoskeletons made of silica and include some of the largest unicellular eukaryotes; can have photosynthetic endosymbionts (dinoflagellates)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
112
Q

characteristics of archaeplastids

A

land plants

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
113
Q

what are some examples of archaeplastids?

A

red algae, green algae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
114
Q

what chlorophyll does red algae use?

A

chlorophyl a and phycoerythrin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
115
Q

what chlorophyll goes green algae use?

A

chlorophyl a and b

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

characteristics of stramenophiles?

A

they have unequal flagella

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
117
Q

what are 2 types of stramenophiles?

A

diatoms and brown algae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
118
Q

what are diatoms?

A

single celled organisms with silica in cell walls that are aquatic and photosynthetic; filtration via diatomaceous earth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
119
Q

what is brown algae?

A

can be multicellular (sea palms and giant kelp) that are photosynthetic (chlorophyll a and c + brown pigments); source of emulsifiers of ice cream

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
120
Q

where do chloroplasts in green algae and land plants come from?

A

cyanobacterium endosymbiosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
121
Q

what is a clue to endosymbiosis leading to chloroplast formation?

A

more than one membrane surrounding the chloroplast

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
122
Q

what is serial endosymbiosis?

A

more than 2 membranes around the chloroplast (derived from red algae)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
123
Q

characteristics of alveolates

A

single celled organisms, with sacs under the cell membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
124
Q

what is paramecium?

A

ciliate (body covered in cilia for motility) that live in fresh water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
125
Q

what are dinoflagellates?

A

have 4 membrane chloroplasts and can cause red tides (large algal growth)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
126
Q

what is plasmodium?

A

parasite that causes malaria with life cycles in mosquitoes and human blood; has nonfunctional chloroplasts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
127
Q

what are examples of alveolates?

A

paramecium, dinoflagellates, and plasmodium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
128
Q

characteristics of excavates

A

unicellular and often lacking mitochondria; named for the surface groove

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
129
Q

what are examples of excavates?

A

giardia, euglena, and trypanosome

130
Q

what is giardia?

A

a diplomonad parasite with many flagella and no mitochondria; in freshwater and causes giardiasis

131
Q

what is euglena?

A

a euglenid photosynthetic organism with a flagellum on the front; if in the dark, it eats

132
Q

what is a trypanosome?

A

a kinetoplastid parasite that causes sleeping sickness

133
Q

what are characteristics of an animal?

A

multicellular, heterotrophic, internal digestion, motility (via muscles and skeleton)

134
Q

True or False: Animals are monophyletic.

A

True- the common ancestor is thought to resemble colonial choanoflagellates

135
Q

the earliest and simplest animals are ______.

A

marine

136
Q

what are sponges?

A

they lack tissues and have cup-shaped body; inner surface composed of chaonocytes (flagella beat to draw water through pores to central cavity)

137
Q

what are diploblastic animals?

A

have 2 body layers and distinct organ systems; noncentralized nerve net; aquatic (body supported by water)

138
Q

diploblastic animals have a central _______ cavity, meaning what?

A

gastrovascular; a single opening is both the mouth and anus

139
Q

what are ctenophores?

A

comb jellies

140
Q

what are cnidarians?

A

jelly fish and corals

141
Q

jelly fish and comb jellies have _________ and _______ symmetry.

A

2 body layers in embryo; radial

142
Q

more complex animals have _______ and ________ symmetry.

A

3 embryonic layers; bilateral

143
Q

what is the difference between deuterostomes and protostomes?

A

the first embryonic opening becomes the mouth in protostomes, but it becomes the anus in deuterostomes and the mouth develops later

144
Q

what is the hollow ball of cells in early embryo?

A

blastula

145
Q

most animals are __________.

A

invertebrates

146
Q

what are the 3 major animal clades?

A

lophotrochozoans, ecdysozians, and deuterostomes

147
Q

what are examples of lophotrochozoans?

A

bryozoans, molluscs, and annelids

148
Q

what are lophotrochozoans?

A

have a common, free-living larval form (trochophore) and a feedng apparatus (lophophore)

149
Q

what are examples of ecdysozoans?

A

arthropods and nematodes

150
Q

what are ecdysozoans?

A

shed exoskeleton to grow

151
Q

what are examples of deuterostomes?

A

echinoderms, hemichordates, and vertebrates

152
Q

what are the most successful animals?

A

arthropods (10^18 at present- most species-rich)

153
Q

what are the most complex of the ecdysozoans?

A

arthropods

154
Q

why have arthropods been successful?

A

the body is supported by an exoskeleton (made of chitin), segmented body plan, and paired, jointed appendages

155
Q

what are 4 types of arthropods?

A

crustaceans, hexapods, myriapods, and chelicerates

156
Q

what are crustaceans?

A

marine and terrestrial organisms (lobster)

157
Q

what are hexapods?

A

terrestrial organisms- insects (grasshopper)

158
Q

what are myriapods?

A

insects like millipedes

159
Q

what are chelicerates?

A

have distinct mouth parts (horseshoe crab, spiders)

160
Q

what are some simpler ecdysozoans?

A

tardigrades and nematodes

161
Q

what are molluscs?

A

they have a foot for moving, internal organs (“visceral mass”), and a mantle that secretes shell

162
Q

what are types of lophotrochozoans?

A

gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods

163
Q

what are gastropods?

A

organisms with one shell (ex: snail)

164
Q

what are bivalves?

A

organisms with 2 shells (ex: clams)

165
Q

what are cephalopods?

A

lophotrochozoans with no exterior shell (ex: octopus)

166
Q

what are annelids?

A

lophotrochozoans with segmented bodies (earthworms and leeches)

167
Q

what are flatworms?

A

lophotrochozoans with simple bodies and often lack digestive tracts; most are internal parasites (flukes and tapeworms)

168
Q

what are rotifers?

A

lophotrochozoans that have a ciliated corona (sweeps food into their mouth); some species only have females

169
Q

what are bryozoans?

A

lophotrochozoans that can be colonial

170
Q

simpler animals have ______ symmetry.

A

radial

171
Q

more advanced animals have _____ symmetry;.

A

bilateral

172
Q

________ evolved from a bilateral ancestor but exhibit radial symmetry as adults.

A

echinoderms

173
Q

characteristics of echinoderms

A

“spiny body”; most are radially symmetric as adults, larvae are bilaterally symmetric, and they move and feed using “tube feet”

174
Q

characteristics of chordates

A

dorsal, hollow nerve cord (CNS), a postanal tail for movement, a notochord for flexible support (sometimes just embryonic), and pharyngeal slits for gas exchange

175
Q

what are examples of chordates?

A

lancets, tunicates, and vertibrates

176
Q

half of all vertebrate species are __________.

A

ray finned fish

177
Q

vertebrates possess ______, which was the first important innovation.

A

jaws

178
Q

what are the ancestors of tetrapods?

A

lobe-fins

179
Q

what are some jawed fishes?

A

cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays), bony fish (ray finned), and lobe-fins

180
Q

what are the most primitive tetrapods?

A

amphibians

181
Q

characteristics of amphibians

A

moist skin (breathe through it), require water to lay eggs (eggs have no shell), and have wet habitats

182
Q

what are some examples of amphibians?

A

frogs, salamanders, and caecilians

183
Q

what are vertebrate innovations?

A

internal skeleton, bony vertebrae, jointed fins, nares (to breathe air), terrestrial limbs, and amniotic eggs

184
Q

what are amniotic eggs?

A

the offspring can withstand drying conditions- membrane layers that allow respiration without drying

185
Q

what are amniotes?

A

reptiles and animals

186
Q

characteristics of reptiles

A

amniotic egg to provide “private pond”, scales (made of keratin, or feathers)

187
Q

what are examples of reptiles?

A

turtles, tuataras, squamates (snakes), crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds

188
Q

characteristics of mammals

A

mammary glands, sweat glands, 4 chambered heart, hair, and sometimes teeth

189
Q

what are the three types of mammals?

A

prototherians, marsupials, and eutherians

190
Q

what are prototherians?

A

mammals that lay eggs (platypus)

191
Q

what are marsupials?

A

mammals whose newborns move to a pouch (kangaroos, possums)

192
Q

what are eutherians?

A

mammals that are more developed at birth- the biggest mammal group (5000 species, 20 major groups)

193
Q

what was the first step to multicellularity?

A

colonial organisms- multiple cells adhere, but they are not differentiated

194
Q

what is the difference between multicellular and colonial organisms?

A

multicellular- more than one cell type
colonial- same type of cell, but many adhered together

195
Q

around how long ago did the first eukaryotes appear in the oceans?

A

1.8-1.3 billion years ago

196
Q

when did the first organisms appear on land?

A

around 1.2 billion years ago (they were protists and bacteria

197
Q

when did the first multicellular land animals appear?

A

around 500 million years ago

198
Q

what are 5 advantageous innovations of plants?

A

vascular tissue, leaves, roots, seeds, and flowers

199
Q

what is vascular tissue in plants?

A

cells specialized for fluid transport that allowed for increase in height

200
Q

what do leaves do in plants?

A

specialized organs for photosynthesis

201
Q

what do roots do in plants?

A

allow for the uptake of water and minerals

202
Q

what do seeds do for plants?

A

next generation dispersed with food, dormancy

203
Q

what do flowers do for plants?

A

pollinators enable wide crossing and increases diversity

204
Q

what is a sporophyte?

A

part of a plant that produces cells that undergo meiosis (and produce spores)

205
Q

what is a gametophyte?

A

part of a plant that produces gametes and develops from spores

206
Q

what is the dominant generation in nonvascular plants?

A

gametophyte (ephemeral sporophyte)

207
Q

nonvascular plants are often ______ and life in ______ environments.

A

small; moist

208
Q

what does the gametophyte look like in nonvascular plants?

A

only few cell types, and leaves are only a few cell layers thick; lacks seeds, leaves, stems, and roots

209
Q

what is the dominant generation in vascular plants?

A

sporophyte (reduced gametophyte)

210
Q

what conducts water over long distances in vascular plants?

A

tracheids

211
Q

what are characteristics of vascular plants?

A

tracheids allow greater size and structural support, most have true roots, some reproduce via seeds

212
Q

what might the first vascular plants have looked like?

A

stem only with no leaves or roots (rhizoids and rhizome held it in place), stem branches at tip (“dichotomous branching”), and reproduced via spores from sporangia

213
Q

what were the 2 origins of leaves?

A

flattened sterile sporangia and fusions of side branches

214
Q

how were microphylls formed?

A

from flattened sterile sporangia

215
Q

how were megaphylls formed?

A

side branches fused (overtopping), and flat plates of tissue formed between small branches

216
Q

what are plants that produce seeds called?

A

seed plants

217
Q

what are plants that do not produce seeds called?

A

ferns

218
Q

what are lycophytes?

A

“club mosses” (not real moss) that has microphylls and dichotomous branching; spores are produced in sporangia in the strobilus (no seeds)

219
Q

what are characteristics of whisk ferns?

A

no leaves or roots with dichotomous branching

220
Q

what are some characteristics of ferns?

A

true leaves and roots, with dominant gametophyte and sporophyte (both are photosynthetic and both can be seen)

221
Q

what functions to seeds serve?

A

protect and nourish the embryo, and allow survival through unfavorable conditions

222
Q

____% of Earth’s biomass is made up of seed plants

A

80%

223
Q

seed plants are _______.

A

vascular

224
Q

what are the 2 groups of seed plants?

A

gymnosperms and angiosperms

225
Q

what are gymnosperms?

A

plants that make “naked” seeds

226
Q

what are angiosperms?

A

plants that make “covered” seeds- mostly flowers

227
Q

True or False: Sperm do not swim in seed plants.

A

True- they are contained in pollen and are transferred as a packet

228
Q

where do seeds come from in gymnosperms?

A

cones

229
Q

what are some types of gymnosperms?

A

cycads, gnetales, ginkgo, conifers

230
Q

where are seeds produced in an angiosperm?

A

in the ovary (in the flower)

231
Q

what are the 2 major groups of angiosperms?

A

monocots and eudicots

232
Q

angiosperms are _______ important for humans.

A

economically (food, fiber, building materials, drugs)

233
Q

why are animal pollinators important for angiosperms?

A

they increase diversity and the production of successful alleles (attraction to the most attractive flowers)

234
Q

what are major groups of eudicots?

A

daisies and relatives (cacti), legumes, roses

235
Q

what are major groups of monocots?

A

palms, cereal grains and other grasses, lilies, orchids, irises

236
Q

what is the difference between plant morphology and anatomy?

A

morphology- what you see externally
anatomy- internal organization (cell types in tissues)

237
Q

plant ancestors were ________ and ______.

A

single-celled and aquatic

238
Q

terrestrial plant life allowed for _______ complexity.

A

greater

239
Q

what is an important special feature of plants?

A

they continually grow throughout their lives

240
Q

what are the 2 organ systems in plants, and what organs are in them?

A

root system (contains roots), and shoot system (contains stems and leaves)

241
Q

what are the 2 states of plant morphology?

A

vegetative (stems and leaves) and reproductive (flowers and fruits form)

242
Q

what are the functions of plant roots?

A

anchorage, water and mineral absorption, and storage (starch)

243
Q

what are the 3 root types?

A

tap roots, fibrous roots, and adventitious roots

244
Q

what are the components of the shoot system in plants?

A

stem, leaf, and bud

245
Q

where is the source of new growth in plants?

A

at tips of stems (terminal buds) and in axils of leaves (axillary buds)

246
Q

what is unique about the organization of a plant?

A

it is modular- there are segments made of a leaf, a bud, and a stem

247
Q

what are the functions of the stem?

A

support, transport, storage

248
Q

what is the function of leaves?

A

photosynthesis

249
Q

what does the flat morphology of leaves maximize efficiency for?

A

gas uptake and light absorption

250
Q

True or False: Each leaf can have multiple axillary buds.

A

False- each leaf has only one

251
Q

what modified plant leaf is made for support?

A

tendrils

252
Q

what modified plant leaf is made for protection?

A

spines

253
Q

what modified leaf is associated with flowering?

A

bracts

254
Q

what modified leaf is made to protect buds in the winter?

A

bud scales

255
Q

True or False: All plant organs have each type of tissue.

A

True

256
Q

what is the dermal tissue system?

A

outer covering of the plant

257
Q

what is the ground tissue system?

A

carries out photosynthesis, stores photosynthetic product, and helps support the plant

258
Q

what is the vascular tissue system?

A

conducts water and solutes throughout the plant

259
Q

what are the simplest land plants?

A

bryophytes

260
Q

what are characteristics of bryophytes?

A

less-specialized anatomy- single-layer thickness of photosynthetic structures and non-vascular water conducting cells

261
Q

what are the components of plant cells that are also in animal cells?

A

nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane

262
Q

what are special features of plant cells?

A

chloroplasts, large vacuole, cell wall, and plasmodesmata

263
Q

what are plasmodesmata?

A

connections between plant cells

264
Q

where are secondary walls added in plant cells?

A

inside of the primary cell wall

265
Q

what are characteristics of parenchyma?

A

living cells with a primary cell wall made of cellulose; diverse metabolic processes

266
Q

what are characteristics of sclerenchyma?

A

dead cells with thick secondary cell walls (strengthened with lignin) for support and rigidity

267
Q

what are long and slender sclerenchyma called?

A

fibers

268
Q

what are isodiametric sclerenchyma called?

A

sclereids

269
Q

what are xylem?

A

plant tissue that conducts water

270
Q

what are the 2 cell types in xylem?

A

tracheids and vessel elements (both dead) [also fibers and parenchyma]

271
Q

what kinds of plants have tracheids?

A

all vascular plants

272
Q

what kinds of plants have vessel elements?

A

angiosperm only (they have more elaborate cell walls)

273
Q

what are phloem?

A

plant tissue that conducts food (sugars or sap)

274
Q

what is the main transport cell of phloem?

A

sieve elements (ALIVE- lack nucleus, ribosomes, mito, and ribosomes) [also companion cells- provides metabolic help]

275
Q

what two things make up plant vascular tissue?

A

xylem and phloem

276
Q

where is the point of continuous cell division on a plant?

A

meristem (growing points at tips of root and shoot- in buds)

277
Q

what is characteristic about meristem cells?

A

not differentiated and can still divide

278
Q

what is vascular cambium?

A

between xylem and phloem in each vascular bundle

279
Q

xylem cells have ____ walls, and phloem cells have ____ walls.

A

thick; thin

280
Q

what is long distance water transport useful for?

A

bulk flow

281
Q

how does water get into roots?

A

osmosis

282
Q

True or False: Uptake of water by a plant cell is limited.

A

True- each cell’s volume is enclosed by a cell wall, and cannot grow past that cell wall

283
Q

what is turgor pressure?

A

cytoplasm that is full of water exerts pressure against the wall, and each other cell exerts pressure against all other cells

284
Q

what regulates the uptake of ions?

A

the composition of the plasma membrane (selective membranes)

285
Q

what are plant cell walls made of?

A

cellulose

286
Q

how does water enter plant cells?

A

it can cross the wall and enter the cell by osmosis, or diffuse through the wall

287
Q

what is an apoplast?

A

the area outside the plasma membrane where water can move

288
Q

what is a symplast?

A

area inside cells that is open for water

289
Q

how are symplasts connected?

A

plasmodesmata

290
Q

what is the order of continuous symplastic water movement?

A

epidermis -> cortex -> endodermis -> xylem

291
Q

what is the order of apoplastic water movement?

A

epidermis -> cortex -> endodermis

292
Q

what is unique about endodermal cells?

A

they are “waterproofed” by a Casparian strip (made of lignin and wax) to block apoplastic water movement

293
Q

how does water have to enter xylem?

A

it must cross a membrane at least twice (at least into and out of the endodermis, sometimes additional membranes before endodermis)

294
Q

how fast can sap move in xylem? *****

A

15 m/h

295
Q

True or False: water has to follow the rules of gravity.

A

False- it moves against gravity to get to the top point of the plant from the roots

296
Q

what are the origins of force of water movement?

A

pushing (root pressure) and pulling

297
Q

how far does pushing force move water?

A

1-2 m

298
Q

where does primary water loss occur?

A

leaves

299
Q

what is a unique property of water?

A

cohesion (due to hydrogen bonding)

300
Q

why can mesophyll cells dry out?

A

they do not have a cuticle (made of wax) on the cell wall that prevents water loss

301
Q

True or False- a film of water covers the plant intercellular space.

A

True- as the leaf dries out, the water film on each cell gets thinner

302
Q

how does sap move in the phloem?

A

from source (where it is made or stored) to sink (where it is used or stored)

303
Q

what propels phloem sap through the plant?

A

hydrostatic pressure- water from xylem is drawn in at the site of phloem loading

304
Q

how is gas exchange between plant cells regulated?

A

epidermal “guard cells” around stomata

305
Q

how do stomata open?

A

the guard cells fill with water and curve, opening the pore

306
Q

how does water uptake by guard cells work?

A

ATP-driven proton pump: H+ moves out of guard cells and favors the uptake of K+ (with Cl- cotransported with it)

307
Q

how does the proton pump turn on?

A

blue light (receptor in plasma membrane of guard cells), light fueling photosynthesis, and a circadian rhythm

308
Q

how do stomata close?

A

when it is dark, the proton pump turns off and K+ and Cl- exit the guard cells; water stress produces abscisic acid which also turns off the proton pump

309
Q

True or False: Plants are heterotrophs.

A

False- they are autotrophs, and are nourished by simple molecules from the environment

310
Q

what provides nutrition to plants?

A

photosynthesis (forms carbohydrates), and the environment (C, H, and O) and “mineral elements”

311
Q

how can it be determined which elements are required for plant growth and development?

A

by analyzing the elements that are present

312
Q

how can it be determined which elements are required for plant growth and development?

A

by analyzing the elements that are present

313
Q

in herbaceous plants, ____% of the plant is water.

A

80-85%

314
Q

how much of the “dry weight” of plants are carbohydrates?

A

95%

315
Q

how can you tell a plant is deficient in a nutrient?

A

it will show characteristic symptoms, such as change in color or less growth

316
Q

which elements are required by plants?

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium

317
Q

how can plants be parasites?

A

the roots of a parasitic plant grows into its host plant and takes the nutrients from the plant

318
Q

what is often the most limiting mineral element?

A

nitrogen

319
Q

why is nitrogen limiting in plants?

A

N2 is abundant in the atmosphere, and plants cannot use it in that form (nitrogen fixing bacteria must break the triple bond in N2 and form ammonia/ammonium)

320
Q

what is an adaptation to ensure sufficient nitrogen?

A

bogs (in acidic soil with fewer nitrogen fixing bacteria and low N availability; leads to carnivory- venus fly traps)

BIOL1412- diversity of form and function (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions