Evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

State the people (in order) who were evolved in developing the theory of evolution

A
  1. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
  2. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
  3. Charles Lyell (1797 -1875)
  4. Charles Darwin
  5. Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould
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2
Q

What is Lamarckism

A

Lamarckism is the theory developed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck, concerning adaptations of species.

  • he argued that individuals adapt during their lifetimes, and pass on those adapted traits to their offspring (who started where their parents left off)
  • Individuals would increase an ability by using it more often (effectively making the organ stronger and larger), whereas they would lose certain abilities by disusing them (making the organ smaller until it disappeared)

EXAMPLE: giraffes with short necks stretched their necks so often to reach the higher leaves that their necks grew. They then passed on the long necks to their offspring

DISPROVEN: evolution takes a long time, individuals can not drastically adapt during their own lifetime; nor can they pass on capabilities

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3
Q

Who was Thomas Malthus? What was his theory? How did this theory impact Darwin’s theory of evolution?

A

Thomas Malthus was a British scholar, influential in political economy and demography, as well as a professor. He published many works called “an essay on the principle of population.”

He theorized that population growth would always surpass food growth (we can not produce food at the same rate at which our population is growing). He theorized that unless there was a massive war or some outbreak, there would be a mass starvation.

His theory helped Darwin develop the theory of evolution. If there were no constraints on a population (such as disease, predation, etc.- general selective pressure) there would still be a limited amount of food, ensuring that natural selection would still operate. He concluded that natural selection is in effect all the time.

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4
Q

Who is Charles Lyell? What is his theory and how did it influence Darwin?

A

Charles Lyell was a lawyer and a professor of geology.

He published the book ‘Principles of Geology’, in which he advocated for the idea that the earth was shaped by slow moving forces, still in effect today, over a very long period of time. This led him to believe that the earth is much older than previously thought (contradicting the churches belief).

Lyell was close to Darwin, and was very influential in his life. Darwin read his book aboard the Beagle on his expedition, and was very inspired. The idea that the earth was very old gave enough of a time line to evolutionary processes to happen.

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5
Q

Charles Darwin

A

(1809- 1882) .

Darwin was born into a wealthy family, his grandfather was in influential scholar in England. He married his cousin. Initially planned on studying medicine, later switched to divinity at Cambridge.

In 1831 he went on a five year scientific exhibition aboard the SM Beagle. On that trip he read Charles Lyells book called ‘The Principles of Geology’, which initially inspired his theory of evolution. While studying the Galapago islands, he gathered evidence about the variety of finches (see other card)

Darwin came back from his exhibition and spent the next 20 years working on his theory and writing his manuscript. After hearing that another naturalist, ALFRED WALLACE had come up with a similar theory and was going to publish it, Darwin finally decided to publish his manuscript, The Origin of Species

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6
Q

Why was Darwins theory so controversial?

A
  • contradicted the churches beliefs about how the earth and animals were created
  • a single line in the book indicated that humans too, may have evolved (made everyone mad because it insinuated that humans are animals)
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7
Q

Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould

A
  • in 1972, they proposed a theory called the ‘punctured equilibrium’ , built on Meyers theory of geographic speciation
  • Punctured Equilibrium is a theory that directly contradicts Darwins theory of gradualism
  • it insinuates that most of the time, species are in a stable state (not evolvnig).
  • Due to some environmental factors there is a rapid burst of change (speciation) and then stability for a long time

-Gradualism is more of a continuous change, insinuating that species are all the time, constantly evolving

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8
Q

Why is Lamarckism disproven

A
  • although one can aquire many characteristics during its life, many features do not change according to use (your eyesight does not improve the more you use your eyes)
  • Individual changes for certain characterstics may happen, but they do not alter your DNA
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9
Q

Although Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s theory was flawed, what crucial (and correct) points did he make?

A
  • species evolve over time
  • A species evolves in response to it’s environment, and becomes more adapted to it
  • changes are passed down from generation to generation
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10
Q

What are the mechanisms for evolution

A
  • natural selection
  • sexual selection
  • artificial selection
  • genetic variation
  • genetic drift
  • mutations
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11
Q

What is evidence for evolution

A
  • paleontology (fossil records)
  • microbiology/physiology (universal biochemical organization)
  • anatomy (homologues vs analogous)
  • early embryonic development
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12
Q

what is evolution

A
  • process of biological change over time
  • based on relationships between species and their environments (environmental pressures etc)
  • central idea of biological evolution is that we all stem from a common ancestor
  • evolution is responsible for the amount of diversity we have on earth

DECENT WITH MODIFICATION
-evolution only occurs when their is a change in genetic material in a species over a period of time (genetic differences are heritable)

KEYPOINT- long term change (ie. evolution) happens due to genetic inheritance

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13
Q

decent with modification

A

how Darwin defined evolution

  • an evolutionary mechanism
  • change in genetic material over a period of time
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14
Q

Darwins Finches

A

On his exhibition aboard the SM Beagle, Darwin spent a large portion of time in the Galapagos Islands where he saw all the variety of finches (finches later became his main example of evolution)

  • all of the finches appeared to have a common ancestor on the mainland, yet each island had a finch with a specific adaptation catered to the type of food on the island
  • the most distinguishable adaptations are the beaks
  • Large strong beaks = nuts
  • narrow thin beaks = insects
  • parrot like = fruit
******
13 species evolved from one finch
- original species had a medium sized beak for feeding on medium sized seeds
1. leaves (pointy triangle)
2. insects (long thin point)
3. tool using (thicker stronger)
4. grubs/worm things (short)
5. fruit (parrot like, strong thick)
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15
Q

What is natural selection

A
  • **mechanism for evolution

- process by which, individuals that are better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce

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16
Q

Elements of natural selection

A
  1. there is variation in characteristics
    - individual members of a species vary in physical characteristics
    - ^so that variations can be passed down from generation to generation
    EXAMPLE. Some beetles are green, others are brown
  2. Survival of the fittest
    - who can reproduce the best/most
    - environments cant support unlimited growth, therefore only some individuals will reproduce to their full potential (those who are fertile, best at surviving etc)
    EXAMPLE. green beetles survive better because they blend in with leaves, and are able to then reproduce
  3. Competition
    - members of species compete for limited resources
    - some are better at getting resources than others
  4. Adaptation
    - natural selection forces populations to become better adapted to their environment
    - each generation will be better adapted than the last

**Natural selection does not anticipate change, it is situational (environment changes —–> selection takes place)

**Really the only requirement for natural selection is that the individual must be able to survive and reproduce

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17
Q

What is the key to natural selection?

A

reproductive success

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18
Q

Peppered moths

A

EXAMPLE OF NATURAL SELECTION

  • before the 1800s, tree bark was relatively light, therefore the moths were lighter in colour
  • after the industrial revolution, waste darkened the trees, killing off the lichen
  • light moths could not adapt to the change, so darker moths became more abundant due to selective pressure from birds
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19
Q

Artificial selection

A
  • **mechanism for evolution
  • occurs when humans exert environmental pressures, as opposed to the environment doing it naturally
  • done to isolate a specific trait
  • Selective breeding and artificial selection are a type of biotechnology
  • humans bred wolves that were more docile, eventually turning them into dogs
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20
Q

Genetic Variation

A
  • **mechanism for evolution
  • variations occur in a species as a result of the variety of combinations of alleles
  • sexual reproduction results in higher genetic diversity and variance
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21
Q

Mutations

A
  • **mechanism for evolution
  • the source of new alleles, is mutations
  • mutations are generally harmful or neutral

DELETION
DUPLICATION
INVERSION
TRANSLOCATION

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22
Q

Gene flow/migration

A
  • ***mechanism for evolution
  • parts of a population migrate, effectively making the gene pool smaller or larger

ie. a group of finches leave the mainland to go to an island; the alleles of future genrations are limited to the allels of the original group that came to the island
ie. A town has a population of brown bunnies. If a white bunny comes to town, there are now more alleles

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23
Q

Genetic drift - bottle neck vs founder

A

**mechanism for evolution
Genetic drift occurs when there is suddenly a smaller population

BOTTLENECK: severe natural disastor, surviving organisms survive by chance. Allele pool is smaller, consists of only survivng organisms. (pure chnce)

FOUNDER: small group leave original population, go to start new population (results in a smaller allele frequencey). example, galapagos finchesd

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24
Q

ADAPTAIONS TABLE
animals - coping with abiotic factors, obtaining food
plants - coping with abiotic factors, obtaining food
-

A

animals coping with abiotic factors
- heavy fur, hibernation, flying south

obtaining food
- quick moving tongues, longer necks, long snouts

plants coping with abiotic factors
- deciduous habitat, bulbs, cold hardiness

obtaining food
- root hairs, larger leaves

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25
Q

Fossils. What are they? How are they formed

A

***evidence for evolution

fossils are hard impressions in solid rock (thin filaments such as leaves, or entire organisms stuck in amber, footprints, bones etc)

Formation:

  • bodies usually decompose. But if they are in a situation where there is a lack of oxygen (ie. buried by sediments, stuck in amber) decomposition is prevented.
  • layers of sediment over the organism increase pressure over time, body becomes compressed, and very gradually chemical changes occur that result in the body being mineralized
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26
Q

How to date fossils - relative dating

A

does not determine precise age of a fossil
- sediments are deposited in layers over time, therefore newer layers are younger than older layers PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

27
Q

principle of superposition

A
  • deeper layers of sediment are older than younger layers of sediment (useful in relative dating of fossils)
28
Q

How to date fossils - absolute dating

A

determines the actual age of a fossil
- methods include counting tree rings or radiometric dating

RADIOMETRIC DATING:

  • harms the fossil
  • scientists measure the percentage of parent vs daughters isotope in a sample as the radioisotope decays
29
Q

What is a fossil record

A
  • shows the history of life, by showing (through fossils) what species were alive in the past
  • principle of superposition, deeper fossils are older than less deep ones (ones closer to the surface, are more similar to organisms seen today)

EXAMPLE: fossil records of vertebraes show that fish are the oldest vertebraes, then reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds

30
Q

transitional fossils

A

**evidence for evolution
through fossils, shows links between two separate groups (common characteristics), proving that they have a common ancestor.
- vestigial strucutres are features that are useless, but were evident in the organisms ancestors

Example: The pelvic bone found in hale fossil record can be linked through transitional fossil to a similar structure in modern whales.

31
Q

Biogeography

A
  • **Evidence for evolution
  • geological distribution of organisms
  • study of how species moved to different geological regions after they evolved
  • looking at species on islands, they very closely resemble species on mainlands. It can be concluded that island animals evolved from mainland animals
32
Q

Patterns of anatomy

A
  • **Evidence for evolution
  • HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES: (common origins) have a similar structure but have different functions.
    example. Dog foot vs human hand

-ANALGOUS STRUCTURES: (different origins)
evolved from different origins but have the same function
example. Insect wing vs bat wing

33
Q

Embryonic development

A
  • **Evidence for evolution
  • when looking at early embrionc development, certain similarites can be seen that point to a common ancestor

example. All vertebraes have gills at some point during embryonic development

34
Q

DNA

A

***Evidence for evolution
DNA can show how closely related two organisms are.
chimps and humans share 98.8% of their DNA, possibly pointing to a common ancestor

dogs are closely related to bears, whereas whales and dolphins are more closely related to ungulates (hooved animals)

35
Q

ungulates

A

hooved animals (horses etc)

36
Q

divergent evolution/adaptive radiation

A

a single species evolves into a number of distinct but slightly different species

-competition minimizes as new species find specific niches

37
Q

convergent evolution

A
  • two different species evolve similarly to occupy their environments

Sharks and Dolphins. Sharks evolved from fish, dolphins from mammals. Both have streamlined bodies and a powerful tail.

38
Q

coevolution

A

a species evolves in response to another species evolving

example. Plants evolved hard seeds to protect their seeds, seed eating mammals developped powerful jaws

39
Q

definition of speciation

A

the evolutionary formation of a new species

40
Q

allopatric speciation

A

speciation occurs due to geographic isolation (physical barrier)

  • rivers, mountains, grand canyon
    example. kaibab squirrels in the grand canyon
41
Q

sympatric speciation

A
  • speciation occurs in the same geographic area, population splits into seperate gene pools
    (live in the same area, but evolve differently to the point that they can no longer breed under natural conditions)
42
Q

definition of reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIM)

A

any behavioural, structural, or biochemical trait that prevents individuals of different species from reproducing successfully together

  1. prezygotic - mechanisms that prevent mating and fertilization
  2. postzygotic - mechanisms that prevent successful offspring
43
Q

prezygotic RIM

A

***3 ways to prevent mating
A) ecological isolation (physical)
- species inhabit their own areas (niches), don’t run into other species therefore can not reproduce

B) Temporal isolation (time)
- species mate/have reproductive cycles during different seasons

C) Behavioral isolation
- mating ritual of one species will not successfully impress the mate of another species

**2 ways to prevent fertilzation
A) Mechanical isolation
- reproductive organs structurally dont work together
B) Gametic isolation
- provents fertilazation on a moleculat level. Example: oysters and clams release their gametes into the water at the same time, but due to gametic isolation the sperm recognize the egg of their own species

44
Q

Postzygotic RIM

A

A) Zygotic mortality
- zygote or embryo doesnt develop properly

B)Hybrid inviability
- hybrid dies early

C) Hybrid infertility
- Hybrid is infertile

45
Q

what does NOT make speciation occur

A
  1. mutations
    mutations cause evolution, but not speciation
  2. Mating with other species /hybridizations
    offspring cant reproduce
46
Q

Mimicry

A
  • the act of mimicking, or copying another species for survival
  • occurs through natural selection
    EXAMPLE. butterfly that looks like an owl when it opens its wings
47
Q

Evolution timeline

A
  • prokaryotes
  • eukaryotes
  • invertebraes
  • chordates
  • plants
  • landplants/fish
  • gymnosperms, amphibians
  • reptiles, insects
  • dinosaurs, mammals
  • angiosperms, birds
  • placentals
  • primates
  • hominids
  • homo sapiens
48
Q

Why are humans so successful

A
  1. Very large brain to body ratio (other animals may have larger brains, but compared to our body ours is very large)
  2. Bipedal (we walk on two feet, therefore we are free to use our hands for tools etc)
  3. Our hands are capable of coordination and fire management
  4. Able to perform complex reasoning and thinking skills (we learn from our mistakes, able to predict events, communicate through complex languages and learn quickly)

we are APEX predators (top of the food chain)

49
Q

What tools did early humans use?

A
  1. Ground edge axe (chopping)
  2. Flake edge axe (woodworking)
  3. blade knife (slicing)
  4. arrow heads (hunting)
50
Q

How are we able to see the brain sizes of out ancestors?

A

We are able to see through the sizes of the skulls, and the grooving imprinted on the inside of the skulls. This shows us how many folds the brain had and how big it was.

51
Q

Why is breastfeeding an important part of development?

A
  • the child has a consistent source of food that is high in energy
  • this allowed humans to develop smarter (due to more nutrition during development)
52
Q

benefits of brain size?

A
  • critical thinking skills (predictions etc)
  • tool use, fire manipulation
  • act less on instinct and more from learned behaviour
53
Q

skull formation

A
  • since humans are ‘predators’ our eyes are on the front of our head
  • prey: generally have eyes on the sides of their heads so that they have a wider vision range
  • predators: generally have eyes on the front of their heads for more focused vision
54
Q

3 ancestors leading up to humans?

A
  1. Homo habilis
  2. Homo erectus
  3. Homo neanderthalensis
  4. homo sapiens
55
Q

Human adaptations

A
  1. enlargement of the brain case, shortening of the face, less prominent brow ridges
  2. longer reproduction time
    - longer gestation (time the baby is carried)
    - usually one offspring at a time
  3. Hands adapted for grasping ( in contrast, gorilla hands are modeled for knuckle walking)
56
Q

Primate adaptations

A
  • reduced snouts, flat faces

- ??? hoe idk

57
Q

The cost of having a larger brain

A
  • longer gestation period (period of time where the baby is carried)
  • large portion of brain development occurs post Nataly
  • young cant look after themselves
  • takes a LOT of energy, especially for mother. Therefore we had to switch to a meatier diet
58
Q

Human phylogeny

A

homo sapiens - species name for humans
we are primates: small group of animals characterized by our complex brains, forward directed eyes, and opposable thumbs
we all share a common ancestor around 60 to 70 million years ago

59
Q

what are primates?

A

small group of mammals characterized by opposable thumbs, flatter faces, front facing eyes and complex brains

60
Q

hominids vs hominoids

A

Hominids: homo habilis, homo erectus, homo neanderthalensis, homo sapiens

Hominoids: all species descended from the most recent common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans

61
Q

Humans vs chimpanzees

A

chimpanzees are our closest living relative, we share 98.8% of our DNA.

  • humans have a larger cranium
  • humans have a flatter faced, opposed to their protruding face
  • humans have a protruding nose, chimps have a flat nose
  • humans have smaller jaws and teeth
  • humans have shorter arms
  • humans have a shorter pelvis (more suitable for bi-pedalism)
62
Q

Lucy

A
(younger than ardi)
Australopithecus afarensis
- 3.2 million years old
- very small
- evidence for walking upright (hip alignment and head attachment)
63
Q

Ardi

A
(oldest hominid fossil)
Ardipithicus ramidus
- more than 4 million years old
- provides evidence for walking upright
- hand fossils support that he was climbing up trees