Everything Flashcards
1
Q
Geographical setting: (3)
A
- Pompeii and Herculaneum were located in the fertile region of Campania, near the coast of the Bay of Naples.
- Pompeii was located next to the river Sarno, and was SE of Mt. Vesuvius. Herculaneum was SW of Vesuvius, near modern-day Naples.
- Both towns were close to the sea; source of trade/communication.
2
Q
Natural features(3)
A
- River Sarno (E of Pompeii).
- Mt. Vesuvius.
- Lattari Mountains (SE of Pompeii).
3
Q
Resources: 4
A
- Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat and barley.
- Area around Vesuvius was very fertile due to the volcanic soil; this made it ideal for agriculture.
- Bay was abundant with sea life; breeding ground for fish. Fishing was major industry for P+H.
- Pompeii had network of roads to other towns; trading was big part of commercial activity.
4
Q
Where was Forum in both cities?
A
➢ The Forum was the heart of the city in both P+H.
5
Q
6 features of streets in P
A
- Main streets inside town were a contribution of the main roads that connected Pompeii with Rome as well as surrounding town.
• Main streets of town also led to the Forum - The streets of P were paved with large slab of volcanic stone.
- The road was raised slightly
- Narrow footpaths were laid above road level on either side
- Stepping stones were placed along streets, esp. in front of homes of the wealthy to allow pedestrians
- Some streets surfaces display ruin caused by the continuous scraping of metal rimmed wheels on Roman carts= evidence of thriving economy
6
Q
3 features of streets cape in H
A
When compared with the streers of Pompeii, there are fewer traces of the traffic in it
- There are no marks worn into roads by the repeated traffic of heavily loaded carts, there are no pedestrian stepping stones
- The step up to the road is not high
- H was equipped wih an excellent drainage system, and a large sewer carried rain water and waste out into the sea.
7
Q
What is the range of available sources, both written and archaeological
A
Very few written sources available; some include Pliny Elder/Younger, Dio Cassius, Strabo, etc. Most evidence → archaeological (e.g. human remains, papyrus scrolls, etc).
8
Q
Ancient Historians: Pliny the Younger (3)
A
- Main source on the eruption of 79AD. Was an ancient Roman writer. Wrote an account of the 79AD eruption. Was adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder. Stated his purpose in writing about the eruption was to show what a hero his uncle was, rather than the effects of the eruption. Despite this, he still described aspects of the eruption:
a. “falling hotter and thicker” – ashes falling.
b. “wide sheets of flame from Mt. Vesuvius and high reaching fires were shining out.”
c. Appearance and shape; described as similar to a ‘pine tree’. - Pliny’s account is not 100% reliable; he does give a very detailed description of parts of the eruption, but his account was written 25 years after the event, and his purpose was to honour his uncle, not describe the eruption.
- Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P+H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.
9
Q
Seneca:
A
➢ ancient philosopher/statesmen who recorded valuable information on Pompeii by describing various aspects of the city. Described Pompeii’s location, the earthquake of 62AD and its effects, and baths.
10
Q
Strabo:
A
➢ Greek geographer. Is useful for the geographical setting/historical background of Pompeii.
11
Q
Modern Sources, how is it helpful?
A
➢ Expand our understanding along with archaeological evidence of what we understand of P+H.
12
Q
Harold Sigurdsson and his role in theory of eruption
A
• Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P+H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.
13
Q
Who examined statigraphy of H and P’s eruption to modern day eruptions (e.g with St. Helens and corroborated with Pliny’s account)
A
Harold Sigurdsson
14
Q
Documents found
A
➢ Volumes of papyri comprising a collection of works by Philodemus in 1st century BC.
Legal/business records, written on wax tablets
15
Q
Official inscription types
A
• Official notices written by professional sign writers.
• Monumental inscriptions on public buildings, tombs and statues.
New laws/outcomes of trials which were written up.
16
Q
Advertisements found were of?
A
- Announcements of gladiatorial combats and theatrical entertainment.
- Election notices.
- Auction sales.
- Lodging house accommodation
17
Q
pottery inscriptions were of what?
A
➢ Were mostly labels of goods, but offer glimpses of trade and life in towns.
18
Q
graffiti of what was found?
A
➢ Pompeii → thousands of scrawls on walls on public/private buildings. E.g.: • Advertisements. • Political propaganda. • Quotations. • Rude remarks/insults. • Compliments
19
Q
In archeological evidence what was found within wall paintings? (2)
A
➢ Interior walls of temples and houses were covered with murals; subjects were predominantly mythological.
➢ These paintings provide details on clothing, food, leisure activities, furniture, writing instruments, games, religious rituals, musical instruments and industrial tools.
20
Q
In archeological evidence what was found within mosaicS?
A
➢ Adorned floors, walls and ceilings. Richest mosaics were enhanced by precious stones/enamelling.
21
Q
In archeological evidence what was found for statues
A
➢ Bronze/marble statues were extremely common in both towns. All public buildings were decorated with profusion of statues.
➢ Were numerous amounts of statues in private establishments depicting gods, copied Greek masterpieces, athletes, ladies and busts. Some statues were used for garden ornamentation or tomb decoration.
22
Q
In archeological evidence what was found about human remains
A
➢ Bones of over 300 victims buried in pumice in houses, on the street, in crypts or in underground cellars.
➢ Varied skulls testify to different ethnic origins of the population.
➢ Plaster casts of victims made by Fiorelli show clothes in fine detail and objects the people were carrying.
➢ 139 victims have been uncovered in seafront chambers/beach at Herculaneum.
23
Q
In archeological evidence what was found for animal remians?
A
➢ Plaster casts in ash of a mule, goat and dogs found in Pompeii.
➢ Remains of a horse found in Herculaneum.
24
Q
What is the issue of sources and reliability for modern day sources??
A
Secondary sources rely on accuracy of primary sources they use.
25
Issue and limitations with written sources particularly Pliny (2)
➢ Although Pliny was an eyewitness to the eruption, his letters were written 25 years after the event, which detracts from his reliability as a source. Pliny also says his facts came from accounts of other people about his uncle’s voyage to rescue friends; the facts are thus hearsay, and may not be reliable. Also, Pliny stated his intention was to show the heroism of his uncle, not to describe the eruption.
➢ Other primary sources also rely on accounts of other people → need to be carefully evaluated.
26
Archaeological issues and limitations
1. Interpretation of evidence by archaeologists/historians is sometimes contradictory → needs to be carefully evaluated.
a. Archaeologists still differ over Pompeii’s prosperity at time of eruption; debate as to whether Pompeii was a thriving town or was experiencing economic/social decline.
b. Originally, bones of victims were regarded as unimportant. More recently, study of bones has revealed great deal about victims from both towns. Originally concluded those who died were old, young and sick; recently known victims were more representative of the whole society, not just those who could not help themselves.
c. When owner of building being excavated was unknown, excavators invented a name based on what was found at the site (e.g. Villa of Papyri). These names may colour the interpretation of some sites.
2. P+H have not been fully excavated; leaves gaps in archaeological evidence for the two towns.
27
Name the phases of the eruption (4)
a. Plinian phase: initial explosion, great thrust of cloud of ash/pumice/gases 20km into the air.
b. Pumice fallout over Pompeii. At first were only pebbles 1cm in diameter, but grew to rocks 20cm in diameter.
c. Some hours later, there were ground surges, which raced to Pompeii at 100km/h.
d. Pyroclastic flow: was a hot, dry avalanche of pumice, ash and gases. Buried Pompeii to a depth of about 4m.
28
How was H destroyed by eruption
4. Herculaneum was destroyed by a series of pyroclastic flows. The first surge which hit Herculaneum travelled at between 100-300km/h, and had a temperature of 400°C. This surge killed anyone left in Herculaneum.
29
Causes of death in P and H
Pompeii: asphyxiation due to ash/gases, and pyroclastic flows.
Herculaneum: lava flows/pyroclastic flows. Instantly killed people as it hit them.
30
How was the state of class and economy differing in P and H
Pompeii had a thriving economy with a full range of commercial activities. Herculaneum was a town of upper-class residents serviced by the lower classes.
31
Herculaneum was not major trading centre. what would be characteristics of trade for P (2)
1. Pompeii had been trade centre of southern Campania for 600 years. Harbour was very busy with ships, sailors and foreign merchants.
2. Exports from Pompeii included: pottery, tiles, wine and garum (fish sauce). Imports included wine and pottery.
32
aspects of commerce (3)
➢ Most streets had shops.
➢ Markets → fresh produce from local farms sold in temporary stalls/permanent shops.
➢ Standardised weights were used when buying/selling.
33
Evidence of Market in P
Remains of fish bones, fruits, cereals and fish that indicate the activities that took place. It housed money changers.
The walls of the Porticoes were decorated with paintings that showed the types of food sold in the market, such as fish and fowl. In the foreground is large circular area in the Centre contained a fish tank, a fountain and workbenches for scaling and preparing fish.
A Public notice from Pompeii: “Dies Nundinae- Satu(ni) Pompeis” ( CIL IV 8863 ) = Market days for Pompeii, opened saturdays
34
4 major industries
1. Agriculture → produced wool, grain, grapes and olives.
2. Manufacturing of woollen textiles took place in Pompeii.
3. Cloth: dying/cleaning. Evidence of these dying/cleaning facilities found in P/H.
4. Wine: large amounts of wine produced in the region, especially in villas. However, was not thought of highly, and not thought to have been exported.
35
Hierarchical structure of upper class: (5)
```
1 Emperor
2 Imperial family
3 Senatorial order
4 Equestrian orders
5 Rich freedmen
```
36
Hierarchical structure of lower class: (3)
− Poor free-born citizens
− Freedmen (Liberti)
− Slaves (Servi)
37
what were slaves called?
Servi
38
Role of slaves
: performed mostly agricultural and manufacturing work. Also served upper class in their homes. Were often from a foreign country defeated in war, or free citizens who sold themselves to pay debts.
39
who were freedmen (3)
* Were previously slaves given freedom by various means
* Gained wealth from trade/wealth/banking/manufacturing/land ownership
* Excluded from becoming senators, but could become equestri
40
who were equites?
* Property qualifications: 400,000 sesterces.
* Served emperor in important posts, e.g. military leadership.
* Gained wealth from public office/trade/banking.
* Position was not hereditary.
41
who were the senators and their privileges ( parliament bod)
* Property qualifications: 1,000,000 sesterces.
* Served emperor in offices throughout the empire.
* Gained wealth from large estates.
* Position was hereditary.
42
Explain the typical role for Women
➢ Typical role was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up children and controlling finances. Women in Pompeii appear to have had much freedom than women in Rome.
43
Explain rights of women
➢ Although could not vote, could make public declarations supporting a particular candidate in an election; this shows that women had a part in public life.
➢ Occupations: tavern owners, working in bakeries, household servants, cooks, cleaners, wet nurses and prostitutes.
➢ Pompeii was a place where “women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honourific and cultic office, and go about in public.”
➢ Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests.
44
What could women be considered as, and of whom portrayed this role?
➢ Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests.
45
5 evidence for political life in P
1. Statue of Marcus Balbus and memorial alter standing at terrace to Herculaneum baths. References one of Herculaneum’s patrons, or suggesting partial or whole funding of baths.
2. Inscription stating Marcus Epidus as protector of the colony.
3. More than 2000 electoral notices found in Pompeii.
4. Amphitheatre at Pompeii inscribed with plaque detailing duumviri paid for it with their own money as a gift to their fellow citizens.
5. Smaller theatre at Pompeii commemorates its erection by “decree of the Decurion’s”
46
Explain 3 points about political patronage
➢ Political life defined by patronage of poorer citizens and particular social/business groups by wealthy elite.
➢ Powerful people offered both protection and assistance to individuals.
➢ Assisted those who sought advancement socially/politically expected support endorsement for election/public recognition.
47
Evidence of how Patronage extended to local public in forms of food public works and games.
➢ Building projects initiated by decree of decriones and paid with public funds but the commemorative inscriptions indicate role of the duumviri, some even paid for themselves.
➢ Commemorative inscriptions reminded the people of Pompeii of the people who held office.
➢ Aulus Flaccus provided varied entertainment as duumviri.
➢ Hot baths at Forum built by the duumvir l. caesius nad aediles c. occuis and l. niramus
48
Every town had a town council, known as
ordo decurionum
49
Every town had councillors known as
decuriones
50
Election process of Duumviri
1. They were elected March each year by the populous, the roman citizens of their town, in a voting assembly, comitia, and took office in July.
2. They were elected annually and on the 1st July began their term of office which lasted for a year
51
Why were Duumviri elected?
provide spectacles for the people, at their own expense. enormous wealth that was required to fulfill peoples expectations
52
Roles of Duumviri
concerned with the government of their local community. They presided over courts in the town. They were responsible for public money and they would call together the town council, and preside over its meetings. They carried out the decrees of the council.
53
Priviledges of Duumviri (8)
1. Every year of the office, the duumviri = special censorial powers to revise the citizen lists and the role of the town councils.
2. During the year of their office, they wore purple togas. They processed through the street with great pomp and in the theatre and at the public games they enjoyed the best seats.
3. Each duumviri had their staff consisting of two guards (lictores) who carried bundles of rods without axes on official occasions,
4. two messengers (viatores) who delivered written orders, and an attendant who summoned people to court and the council members to their meetings. This attendant was present at both to maintain order and announce the time.
5. There was a copyist (libraries) who wrote down letters and documents and
6. there was a diviner (haruspex),
7. a herald ( praecox) and
8. a flute played (tibicen).
54
Evidence of the Duumviri
In the Odeon an inscription tells us that the construction of the Odeon was paid for by the duumviri, Cais Valgus and Marcus Porcuis who also commissioned the large theatre
55
Election process of Aedile (x)
elected March each year by the populous, the roman citizens of their town, in a voting assembly, comitia.
56
What did Aedile provide why were they voted in?
During their year of office they provided the people with public games and paid much of the cost themselves.
57
Roles of the Aedile(5)
1. responsible for much of day-to-day administration of the town.
2. They supervised markets and
3. took care of the temples and streets.
4. granted permits to stall holders near the amphitheater and to others who occupies the land.
5. They granted permits to erect altars and to make votive offerings displayed in temples.
58
Priviledges of the Aedile (7)
1. had staff of attendance a secretary (scriba),
2. a diviner (hauspex
3. a flute player (tibicen)
4. and a herald (praecox).
5. Four slaves would have been assigned to them and they would have acted like the police in town. The slaves proceeded tha aediles carrying torches.
6. While in office Aediles wore a toga bordered purple, the toga praetexta that signaled their rank.
7. They had special places assigned to them in theatres and at the game.
59
evidence of the Aedile
1. Grafitti: “ The worshippers of Isis ask you to elect CN Helvius as Aedile”
2. “The inhabitants of the salt works district recommend M Cenzus as Aedile”
60
Election process of Decurions
To qualify one had to be over the age of 25 and have considerable wealth above the lure of bribes and influential.The decurions were not elected by towns people. Usually hose who joined the Aedile joined the council
61
What did Decurions ( guria) have to offer?
➢ Controlled all aspects of public life, civic finances, taxation, public religion and buildings, regulated commerce.
➢ Some professions were banned from the Curia; e.g. actors, gladiators, grave-diggers, etc.
62
The comitium (the electoral assembly) number unknown consisted of what?
All member citizens of the town populous voters divided into tribes
63
Whats was role of the electoral assembly?
Met once a year to vote for the duumviri and the aedilies, presented themselves as fixed pairs in an election team.
May have met in the comitium or some other large building
64
Resources: 4
➢ Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat and barley.
➢ Area around Vesuvius was very fertile due to the volcanic soil; this made it ideal for agriculture.
➢ Bay was abundant with sea life; breeding ground for fish. Fishing was major industry for P+H.
➢ Pompeii had network of roads to other towns; trading was big part of commercial activity.
65
Where was Forum in both cities?
➢ The Forum was the heart of the city in both P+H.
66
6 features of streets in P
1. Main streets inside town were a contribution of the main roads that connected Pompeii with Rome as well as surrounding town.
• Main streets of town also led to the Forum
2. The streets of P were paved with large slab of volcanic stone.
3. The road was raised slightly
4. Narrow footpaths were laid above road level on either side
5. Stepping stones were placed along streets, esp. in front of homes of the wealthy to allow pedestrians
6. Some streets surfaces display ruin caused by the continuous scraping of metal rimmed wheels on Roman carts= evidence of thriving economy
67
3 features of streets cape in H
When compared with the streers of Pompeii, there are fewer traces of the traffic in it
1. There are no marks worn into roads by the repeated traffic of heavily loaded carts, there are no pedestrian stepping stones
2. The step up to the road is not high
3. H was equipped wih an excellent drainage system, and a large sewer carried rain water and waste out into the sea.
68
What is the range of available sources, both written and archaeological
Very few written sources available; some include Pliny Elder/Younger, Dio Cassius, Strabo, etc. Most evidence → archaeological (e.g. human remains, papyrus scrolls, etc).
69
Ancient Historians: Pliny the Younger (3)
1. Main source on the eruption of 79AD. Was an ancient Roman writer. Wrote an account of the 79AD eruption. Was adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder. Stated his purpose in writing about the eruption was to show what a hero his uncle was, rather than the effects of the eruption. Despite this, he still described aspects of the eruption:
a. “falling hotter and thicker” – ashes falling.
b. “wide sheets of flame from Mt. Vesuvius and high reaching fires were shining out.”
c. Appearance and shape; described as similar to a ‘pine tree’.
2. Pliny’s account is not 100% reliable; he does give a very detailed description of parts of the eruption, but his account was written 25 years after the event, and his purpose was to honour his uncle, not describe the eruption.
3. Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P+H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.
70
Seneca:
➢ ancient philosopher/statesmen who recorded valuable information on Pompeii by describing various aspects of the city. Described Pompeii’s location, the earthquake of 62AD and its effects, and baths.
71
Strabo:
➢ Greek geographer. Is useful for the geographical setting/historical background of Pompeii.
72
Modern Sources, how is it helpful?
➢ Expand our understanding along with archaeological evidence of what we understand of P+H.
73
Harold Sigurdsson and his role in theory of eruption
• Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P+H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.
74
Who examined statigraphy of H and P's eruption to modern day eruptions (e.g with St. Helens and corroborated with Pliny's account)
Harold Sigurdsson
75
Documents found
➢ Volumes of papyri comprising a collection of works by Philodemus in 1st century BC.
Legal/business records, written on wax tablets
76
Official inscription types
• Official notices written by professional sign writers.
• Monumental inscriptions on public buildings, tombs and statues.
New laws/outcomes of trials which were written up.
77
Advertisements found were of?
* Announcements of gladiatorial combats and theatrical entertainment.
* Election notices.
* Auction sales.
* Lodging house accommodation
78
pottery inscriptions were of what?
➢ Were mostly labels of goods, but offer glimpses of trade and life in towns.
79
graffiti of what was found?
```
➢ Pompeii → thousands of scrawls on walls on public/private buildings. E.g.:
• Advertisements.
• Political propaganda.
• Quotations.
• Rude remarks/insults.
• Compliments
```
80
In archeological evidence what was found within wall paintings? (2)
➢ Interior walls of temples and houses were covered with murals; subjects were predominantly mythological.
➢ These paintings provide details on clothing, food, leisure activities, furniture, writing instruments, games, religious rituals, musical instruments and industrial tools.
81
In archeological evidence what was found within mosaicS?
➢ Adorned floors, walls and ceilings. Richest mosaics were enhanced by precious stones/enamelling.
82
In archeological evidence what was found for statues
➢ Bronze/marble statues were extremely common in both towns. All public buildings were decorated with profusion of statues.
➢ Were numerous amounts of statues in private establishments depicting gods, copied Greek masterpieces, athletes, ladies and busts. Some statues were used for garden ornamentation or tomb decoration.
83
In archeological evidence what was found about human remains
➢ Bones of over 300 victims buried in pumice in houses, on the street, in crypts or in underground cellars.
➢ Varied skulls testify to different ethnic origins of the population.
➢ Plaster casts of victims made by Fiorelli show clothes in fine detail and objects the people were carrying.
➢ 139 victims have been uncovered in seafront chambers/beach at Herculaneum.
84
In archeological evidence what was found for animal remians?
➢ Plaster casts in ash of a mule, goat and dogs found in Pompeii.
➢ Remains of a horse found in Herculaneum.
85
What is the issue of sources and reliability for modern day sources??
Secondary sources rely on accuracy of primary sources they use.
86
Issue and limitations with written sources particularly Pliny (2)
➢ Although Pliny was an eyewitness to the eruption, his letters were written 25 years after the event, which detracts from his reliability as a source. Pliny also says his facts came from accounts of other people about his uncle’s voyage to rescue friends; the facts are thus hearsay, and may not be reliable. Also, Pliny stated his intention was to show the heroism of his uncle, not to describe the eruption.
➢ Other primary sources also rely on accounts of other people → need to be carefully evaluated.
87
Archaeological issues and limitations
1. Interpretation of evidence by archaeologists/historians is sometimes contradictory → needs to be carefully evaluated.
a. Archaeologists still differ over Pompeii’s prosperity at time of eruption; debate as to whether Pompeii was a thriving town or was experiencing economic/social decline.
b. Originally, bones of victims were regarded as unimportant. More recently, study of bones has revealed great deal about victims from both towns. Originally concluded those who died were old, young and sick; recently known victims were more representative of the whole society, not just those who could not help themselves.
c. When owner of building being excavated was unknown, excavators invented a name based on what was found at the site (e.g. Villa of Papyri). These names may colour the interpretation of some sites.
2. P+H have not been fully excavated; leaves gaps in archaeological evidence for the two towns.
88
Name the phases of the eruption (4)
a. Plinian phase: initial explosion, great thrust of cloud of ash/pumice/gases 20km into the air.
b. Pumice fallout over Pompeii. At first were only pebbles 1cm in diameter, but grew to rocks 20cm in diameter.
c. Some hours later, there were ground surges, which raced to Pompeii at 100km/h.
d. Pyroclastic flow: was a hot, dry avalanche of pumice, ash and gases. Buried Pompeii to a depth of about 4m.
89
How was H destroyed by eruption
4. Herculaneum was destroyed by a series of pyroclastic flows. The first surge which hit Herculaneum travelled at between 100-300km/h, and had a temperature of 400°C. This surge killed anyone left in Herculaneum.
90
Causes of death in P and H
Pompeii: asphyxiation due to ash/gases, and pyroclastic flows.
Herculaneum: lava flows/pyroclastic flows. Instantly killed people as it hit them.
91
How was the state of class and economy differing in P and H
Pompeii had a thriving economy with a full range of commercial activities. Herculaneum was a town of upper-class residents serviced by the lower classes.
92
Herculaneum was not major trading centre. what would be characteristics of trade for P (2)
1. Pompeii had been trade centre of southern Campania for 600 years. Harbour was very busy with ships, sailors and foreign merchants.
2. Exports from Pompeii included: pottery, tiles, wine and garum (fish sauce). Imports included wine and pottery.
93
aspects of commerce (3)
➢ Most streets had shops.
➢ Markets → fresh produce from local farms sold in temporary stalls/permanent shops.
➢ Standardised weights were used when buying/selling.
94
Evidence of Market in P
Remains of fish bones, fruits, cereals and fish that indicate the activities that took place. It housed money changers.
The walls of the Porticoes were decorated with paintings that showed the types of food sold in the market, such as fish and fowl. In the foreground is large circular area in the Centre contained a fish tank, a fountain and workbenches for scaling and preparing fish.
A Public notice from Pompeii: “Dies Nundinae- Satu(ni) Pompeis” ( CIL IV 8863 ) = Market days for Pompeii, opened saturdays
95
4 major industries
1. Agriculture → produced wool, grain, grapes and olives.
2. Manufacturing of woollen textiles took place in Pompeii.
3. Cloth: dying/cleaning. Evidence of these dying/cleaning facilities found in P/H.
4. Wine: large amounts of wine produced in the region, especially in villas. However, was not thought of highly, and not thought to have been exported.
96
Hierarchical structure of upper class: (5)
```
1 Emperor
2 Imperial family
3 Senatorial order
4 Equestrian orders
5 Rich freedmen
```
97
Hierarchical structure of lower class: (3)
− Poor free-born citizens
− Freedmen (Liberti)
− Slaves (Servi)
98
what were slaves called?
Servi
99
Role of slaves
: performed mostly agricultural and manufacturing work. Also served upper class in their homes. Were often from a foreign country defeated in war, or free citizens who sold themselves to pay debts.
100
who were freedmen (3)
* Were previously slaves given freedom by various means
* Gained wealth from trade/wealth/banking/manufacturing/land ownership
* Excluded from becoming senators, but could become equestri
101
who were equites?
* Property qualifications: 400,000 sesterces.
* Served emperor in important posts, e.g. military leadership.
* Gained wealth from public office/trade/banking.
* Position was not hereditary.
102
who were the senators and their privileges ( parliament bod)
* Property qualifications: 1,000,000 sesterces.
* Served emperor in offices throughout the empire.
* Gained wealth from large estates.
* Position was hereditary.
103
Explain the typical role for Women
➢ Typical role was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up children and controlling finances. Women in Pompeii appear to have had much freedom than women in Rome.
104
Explain rights of women
➢ Although could not vote, could make public declarations supporting a particular candidate in an election; this shows that women had a part in public life.
➢ Occupations: tavern owners, working in bakeries, household servants, cooks, cleaners, wet nurses and prostitutes.
➢ Pompeii was a place where “women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honourific and cultic office, and go about in public.”
➢ Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests.
105
What could women be considered as, and of whom portrayed this role?
➢ Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests.
106
5 evidence for political life in P
1. Statue of Marcus Balbus and memorial alter standing at terrace to Herculaneum baths. References one of Herculaneum’s patrons, or suggesting partial or whole funding of baths.
2. Inscription stating Marcus Epidus as protector of the colony.
3. More than 2000 electoral notices found in Pompeii.
4. Amphitheatre at Pompeii inscribed with plaque detailing duumviri paid for it with their own money as a gift to their fellow citizens.
5. Smaller theatre at Pompeii commemorates its erection by “decree of the Decurion’s”
107
Explain 3 points about political patronage
➢ Political life defined by patronage of poorer citizens and particular social/business groups by wealthy elite.
➢ Powerful people offered both protection and assistance to individuals.
➢ Assisted those who sought advancement socially/politically expected support endorsement for election/public recognition.
108
Evidence of how Patronage extended to local public in forms of food public works and games.
➢ Building projects initiated by decree of decriones and paid with public funds but the commemorative inscriptions indicate role of the duumviri, some even paid for themselves.
➢ Commemorative inscriptions reminded the people of Pompeii of the people who held office.
➢ Aulus Flaccus provided varied entertainment as duumviri.
➢ Hot baths at Forum built by the duumvir l. caesius nad aediles c. occuis and l. niramus
109
Every town had a town council, known as
ordo decurionum
110
Every town had councillors known as
decuriones
111
Election process of Duumviri
1. They were elected March each year by the populous, the roman citizens of their town, in a voting assembly, comitia, and took office in July.
2. They were elected annually and on the 1st July began their term of office which lasted for a year
112
Why were Duumviri elected?
provide spectacles for the people, at their own expense. enormous wealth that was required to fulfill peoples expectations
113
Roles of Duumviri
concerned with the government of their local community. They presided over courts in the town. They were responsible for public money and they would call together the town council, and preside over its meetings. They carried out the decrees of the council.
114
Priviledges of Duumviri (8)
1. Every year of the office, the duumviri = special censorial powers to revise the citizen lists and the role of the town councils.
2. During the year of their office, they wore purple togas. They processed through the street with great pomp and in the theatre and at the public games they enjoyed the best seats.
3. Each duumviri had their staff consisting of two guards (lictores) who carried bundles of rods without axes on official occasions,
4. two messengers (viatores) who delivered written orders, and an attendant who summoned people to court and the council members to their meetings. This attendant was present at both to maintain order and announce the time.
5. There was a copyist (libraries) who wrote down letters and documents and
6. there was a diviner (haruspex),
7. a herald ( praecox) and
8. a flute played (tibicen).
115
Evidence of the Duumviri
In the Odeon an inscription tells us that the construction of the Odeon was paid for by the duumviri, Cais Valgus and Marcus Porcuis who also commissioned the large theatre
116
Election process of Aedile (x)
elected March each year by the populous, the roman citizens of their town, in a voting assembly, comitia.
117
What did Aedile provide why were they voted in?
During their year of office they provided the people with public games and paid much of the cost themselves.
118
Roles of the Aedile(5)
1. responsible for much of day-to-day administration of the town.
2. They supervised markets and
3. took care of the temples and streets.
4. granted permits to stall holders near the amphitheater and to others who occupies the land.
5. They granted permits to erect altars and to make votive offerings displayed in temples.
119
Priviledges of the Aedile (7)
1. had staff of attendance a secretary (scriba),
2. a diviner (hauspex
3. a flute player (tibicen)
4. and a herald (praecox).
5. Four slaves would have been assigned to them and they would have acted like the police in town. The slaves proceeded tha aediles carrying torches.
6. While in office Aediles wore a toga bordered purple, the toga praetexta that signaled their rank.
7. They had special places assigned to them in theatres and at the game.
120
evidence of the Aedile
1. Grafitti: “ The worshippers of Isis ask you to elect CN Helvius as Aedile”
2. “The inhabitants of the salt works district recommend M Cenzus as Aedile”
121
Election process of Decurions
To qualify one had to be over the age of 25 and have considerable wealth above the lure of bribes and influential.The decurions were not elected by towns people. Usually hose who joined the Aedile joined the council
122
What did Decurions ( guria) have to offer?
➢ Controlled all aspects of public life, civic finances, taxation, public religion and buildings, regulated commerce.
➢ Some professions were banned from the Curia; e.g. actors, gladiators, grave-diggers, etc.
123
The comitium (the electoral assembly) number unknown consisted of what?
All member citizens of the town populous voters divided into tribes
124
Whats was role of the electoral assembly?
Met once a year to vote for the duumviri and the aedilies, presented themselves as fixed pairs in an election team.
May have met in the comitium or some other large building
125
Resources: 4
➢ Wine, olives, olive oil, grain, fish, wheat and barley.
➢ Area around Vesuvius was very fertile due to the volcanic soil; this made it ideal for agriculture.
➢ Bay was abundant with sea life; breeding ground for fish. Fishing was major industry for P+H.
➢ Pompeii had network of roads to other towns; trading was big part of commercial activity.
126
Where was Forum in both cities?
➢ The Forum was the heart of the city in both P+H.
127
6 features of streets in P
1. Main streets inside town were a contribution of the main roads that connected Pompeii with Rome as well as surrounding town.
• Main streets of town also led to the Forum
2. The streets of P were paved with large slab of volcanic stone.
3. The road was raised slightly
4. Narrow footpaths were laid above road level on either side
5. Stepping stones were placed along streets, esp. in front of homes of the wealthy to allow pedestrians
6. Some streets surfaces display ruin caused by the continuous scraping of metal rimmed wheels on Roman carts= evidence of thriving economy
128
3 features of streets cape in H
When compared with the streers of Pompeii, there are fewer traces of the traffic in it
1. There are no marks worn into roads by the repeated traffic of heavily loaded carts, there are no pedestrian stepping stones
2. The step up to the road is not high
3. H was equipped wih an excellent drainage system, and a large sewer carried rain water and waste out into the sea.
129
What is the range of available sources, both written and archaeological
Very few written sources available; some include Pliny Elder/Younger, Dio Cassius, Strabo, etc. Most evidence → archaeological (e.g. human remains, papyrus scrolls, etc).
130
Ancient Historians: Pliny the Younger (3)
1. Main source on the eruption of 79AD. Was an ancient Roman writer. Wrote an account of the 79AD eruption. Was adopted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder. Stated his purpose in writing about the eruption was to show what a hero his uncle was, rather than the effects of the eruption. Despite this, he still described aspects of the eruption:
a. “falling hotter and thicker” – ashes falling.
b. “wide sheets of flame from Mt. Vesuvius and high reaching fires were shining out.”
c. Appearance and shape; described as similar to a ‘pine tree’.
2. Pliny’s account is not 100% reliable; he does give a very detailed description of parts of the eruption, but his account was written 25 years after the event, and his purpose was to honour his uncle, not describe the eruption.
3. Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P+H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.
131
Seneca:
➢ ancient philosopher/statesmen who recorded valuable information on Pompeii by describing various aspects of the city. Described Pompeii’s location, the earthquake of 62AD and its effects, and baths.
132
Strabo:
➢ Greek geographer. Is useful for the geographical setting/historical background of Pompeii.
133
Modern Sources, how is it helpful?
➢ Expand our understanding along with archaeological evidence of what we understand of P+H.
134
Harold Sigurdsson and his role in theory of eruption
• Work of Hiraldur Sigurdsson (examining stratigraphy of P+H, and comparing eruption of Vesuvius to modern day eruptions, e.g. Mt. St Helens) corroborated what Pliny’s account said; this made Pliny more reliable.
135
Who examined statigraphy of H and P's eruption to modern day eruptions (e.g with St. Helens and corroborated with Pliny's account)
Harold Sigurdsson
136
Documents found
➢ Volumes of papyri comprising a collection of works by Philodemus in 1st century BC.
Legal/business records, written on wax tablets
137
Official inscription types
• Official notices written by professional sign writers.
• Monumental inscriptions on public buildings, tombs and statues.
New laws/outcomes of trials which were written up.
138
Advertisements found were of?
* Announcements of gladiatorial combats and theatrical entertainment.
* Election notices.
* Auction sales.
* Lodging house accommodation
139
pottery inscriptions were of what?
➢ Were mostly labels of goods, but offer glimpses of trade and life in towns.
140
graffiti of what was found?
```
➢ Pompeii → thousands of scrawls on walls on public/private buildings. E.g.:
• Advertisements.
• Political propaganda.
• Quotations.
• Rude remarks/insults.
• Compliments
```
141
In archeological evidence what was found within wall paintings? (2)
➢ Interior walls of temples and houses were covered with murals; subjects were predominantly mythological.
➢ These paintings provide details on clothing, food, leisure activities, furniture, writing instruments, games, religious rituals, musical instruments and industrial tools.
142
In archeological evidence what was found within mosaicS?
➢ Adorned floors, walls and ceilings. Richest mosaics were enhanced by precious stones/enamelling.
143
In archeological evidence what was found for statues
➢ Bronze/marble statues were extremely common in both towns. All public buildings were decorated with profusion of statues.
➢ Were numerous amounts of statues in private establishments depicting gods, copied Greek masterpieces, athletes, ladies and busts. Some statues were used for garden ornamentation or tomb decoration.
144
In archeological evidence what was found about human remains
➢ Bones of over 300 victims buried in pumice in houses, on the street, in crypts or in underground cellars.
➢ Varied skulls testify to different ethnic origins of the population.
➢ Plaster casts of victims made by Fiorelli show clothes in fine detail and objects the people were carrying.
➢ 139 victims have been uncovered in seafront chambers/beach at Herculaneum.
145
In archeological evidence what was found for animal remians?
➢ Plaster casts in ash of a mule, goat and dogs found in Pompeii.
➢ Remains of a horse found in Herculaneum.
146
What is the issue of sources and reliability for modern day sources??
Secondary sources rely on accuracy of primary sources they use.
147
Issue and limitations with written sources particularly Pliny (2)
➢ Although Pliny was an eyewitness to the eruption, his letters were written 25 years after the event, which detracts from his reliability as a source. Pliny also says his facts came from accounts of other people about his uncle’s voyage to rescue friends; the facts are thus hearsay, and may not be reliable. Also, Pliny stated his intention was to show the heroism of his uncle, not to describe the eruption.
➢ Other primary sources also rely on accounts of other people → need to be carefully evaluated.
148
Archaeological issues and limitations
1. Interpretation of evidence by archaeologists/historians is sometimes contradictory → needs to be carefully evaluated.
a. Archaeologists still differ over Pompeii’s prosperity at time of eruption; debate as to whether Pompeii was a thriving town or was experiencing economic/social decline.
b. Originally, bones of victims were regarded as unimportant. More recently, study of bones has revealed great deal about victims from both towns. Originally concluded those who died were old, young and sick; recently known victims were more representative of the whole society, not just those who could not help themselves.
c. When owner of building being excavated was unknown, excavators invented a name based on what was found at the site (e.g. Villa of Papyri). These names may colour the interpretation of some sites.
2. P+H have not been fully excavated; leaves gaps in archaeological evidence for the two towns.
149
Name the phases of the eruption (4)
a. Plinian phase: initial explosion, great thrust of cloud of ash/pumice/gases 20km into the air.
b. Pumice fallout over Pompeii. At first were only pebbles 1cm in diameter, but grew to rocks 20cm in diameter.
c. Some hours later, there were ground surges, which raced to Pompeii at 100km/h.
d. Pyroclastic flow: was a hot, dry avalanche of pumice, ash and gases. Buried Pompeii to a depth of about 4m.
150
How was H destroyed by eruption
4. Herculaneum was destroyed by a series of pyroclastic flows. The first surge which hit Herculaneum travelled at between 100-300km/h, and had a temperature of 400°C. This surge killed anyone left in Herculaneum.
151
Causes of death in P and H
Pompeii: asphyxiation due to ash/gases, and pyroclastic flows.
Herculaneum: lava flows/pyroclastic flows. Instantly killed people as it hit them.
152
How was the state of class and economy differing in P and H
Pompeii had a thriving economy with a full range of commercial activities. Herculaneum was a town of upper-class residents serviced by the lower classes.
153
Herculaneum was not major trading centre. what would be characteristics of trade for P (2)
1. Pompeii had been trade centre of southern Campania for 600 years. Harbour was very busy with ships, sailors and foreign merchants.
2. Exports from Pompeii included: pottery, tiles, wine and garum (fish sauce). Imports included wine and pottery.
154
aspects of commerce (3)
➢ Most streets had shops.
➢ Markets → fresh produce from local farms sold in temporary stalls/permanent shops.
➢ Standardised weights were used when buying/selling.
155
Evidence of Market in P
Remains of fish bones, fruits, cereals and fish that indicate the activities that took place. It housed money changers.
The walls of the Porticoes were decorated with paintings that showed the types of food sold in the market, such as fish and fowl. In the foreground is large circular area in the Centre contained a fish tank, a fountain and workbenches for scaling and preparing fish.
A Public notice from Pompeii: “Dies Nundinae- Satu(ni) Pompeis” ( CIL IV 8863 ) = Market days for Pompeii, opened saturdays
156
4 major industries
1. Agriculture → produced wool, grain, grapes and olives.
2. Manufacturing of woollen textiles took place in Pompeii.
3. Cloth: dying/cleaning. Evidence of these dying/cleaning facilities found in P/H.
4. Wine: large amounts of wine produced in the region, especially in villas. However, was not thought of highly, and not thought to have been exported.
157
Hierarchical structure of upper class: (5)
```
1 Emperor
2 Imperial family
3 Senatorial order
4 Equestrian orders
5 Rich freedmen
```
158
Hierarchical structure of lower class: (3)
− Poor free-born citizens
− Freedmen (Liberti)
− Slaves (Servi)
159
what were slaves called?
Servi
160
Role of slaves
: performed mostly agricultural and manufacturing work. Also served upper class in their homes. Were often from a foreign country defeated in war, or free citizens who sold themselves to pay debts.
161
who were freedmen (3)
* Were previously slaves given freedom by various means
* Gained wealth from trade/wealth/banking/manufacturing/land ownership
* Excluded from becoming senators, but could become equestri
162
who were equites?
* Property qualifications: 400,000 sesterces.
* Served emperor in important posts, e.g. military leadership.
* Gained wealth from public office/trade/banking.
* Position was not hereditary.
163
who were the senators and their privileges ( parliament bod)
* Property qualifications: 1,000,000 sesterces.
* Served emperor in offices throughout the empire.
* Gained wealth from large estates.
* Position was hereditary.
164
Explain the typical role for Women
➢ Typical role was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up children and controlling finances. Women in Pompeii appear to have had much freedom than women in Rome.
165
Explain rights of women
➢ Although could not vote, could make public declarations supporting a particular candidate in an election; this shows that women had a part in public life.
➢ Occupations: tavern owners, working in bakeries, household servants, cooks, cleaners, wet nurses and prostitutes.
➢ Pompeii was a place where “women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honourific and cultic office, and go about in public.”
➢ Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests.
166
What could women be considered as, and of whom portrayed this role?
➢ Could be public priestesses, eumachia donated the impressive building on the east side of the forum, and epitaphs reveal women as priests.
167
5 evidence for political life in P
1. Statue of Marcus Balbus and memorial alter standing at terrace to Herculaneum baths. References one of Herculaneum’s patrons, or suggesting partial or whole funding of baths.
2. Inscription stating Marcus Epidus as protector of the colony.
3. More than 2000 electoral notices found in Pompeii.
4. Amphitheatre at Pompeii inscribed with plaque detailing duumviri paid for it with their own money as a gift to their fellow citizens.
5. Smaller theatre at Pompeii commemorates its erection by “decree of the Decurion’s”
168
Explain 3 points about political patronage
➢ Political life defined by patronage of poorer citizens and particular social/business groups by wealthy elite.
➢ Powerful people offered both protection and assistance to individuals.
➢ Assisted those who sought advancement socially/politically expected support endorsement for election/public recognition.
169
Evidence of how Patronage extended to local public in forms of food public works and games.
➢ Building projects initiated by decree of decriones and paid with public funds but the commemorative inscriptions indicate role of the duumviri, some even paid for themselves.
➢ Commemorative inscriptions reminded the people of Pompeii of the people who held office.
➢ Aulus Flaccus provided varied entertainment as duumviri.
➢ Hot baths at Forum built by the duumvir l. caesius nad aediles c. occuis and l. niramus
170
Every town had a town council, known as
ordo decurionum
171
Every town had councillors known as
decuriones
172
Election process of Duumviri
1. They were elected March each year by the populous, the roman citizens of their town, in a voting assembly, comitia, and took office in July.
2. They were elected annually and on the 1st July began their term of office which lasted for a year
173
Why were Duumviri elected?
provide spectacles for the people, at their own expense. enormous wealth that was required to fulfill peoples expectations
174
Roles of Duumviri
concerned with the government of their local community. They presided over courts in the town. They were responsible for public money and they would call together the town council, and preside over its meetings. They carried out the decrees of the council.
175
Priviledges of Duumviri (8)
1. Every year of the office, the duumviri = special censorial powers to revise the citizen lists and the role of the town councils.
2. During the year of their office, they wore purple togas. They processed through the street with great pomp and in the theatre and at the public games they enjoyed the best seats.
3. Each duumviri had their staff consisting of two guards (lictores) who carried bundles of rods without axes on official occasions,
4. two messengers (viatores) who delivered written orders, and an attendant who summoned people to court and the council members to their meetings. This attendant was present at both to maintain order and announce the time.
5. There was a copyist (libraries) who wrote down letters and documents and
6. there was a diviner (haruspex),
7. a herald ( praecox) and
8. a flute played (tibicen).
176
Evidence of the Duumviri
In the Odeon an inscription tells us that the construction of the Odeon was paid for by the duumviri, Cais Valgus and Marcus Porcuis who also commissioned the large theatre
177
Election process of Aedile (x)
elected March each year by the populous, the roman citizens of their town, in a voting assembly, comitia.
178
What did Aedile provide why were they voted in?
During their year of office they provided the people with public games and paid much of the cost themselves.
179
Roles of the Aedile(5)
1. responsible for much of day-to-day administration of the town.
2. They supervised markets and
3. took care of the temples and streets.
4. granted permits to stall holders near the amphitheater and to others who occupies the land.
5. They granted permits to erect altars and to make votive offerings displayed in temples.
180
Priviledges of the Aedile (7)
1. had staff of attendance a secretary (scriba),
2. a diviner (hauspex
3. a flute player (tibicen)
4. and a herald (praecox).
5. Four slaves would have been assigned to them and they would have acted like the police in town. The slaves proceeded tha aediles carrying torches.
6. While in office Aediles wore a toga bordered purple, the toga praetexta that signaled their rank.
7. They had special places assigned to them in theatres and at the game.
181
evidence of the Aedile
1. Grafitti: “ The worshippers of Isis ask you to elect CN Helvius as Aedile”
2. “The inhabitants of the salt works district recommend M Cenzus as Aedile”
182
Election process of Decurions
To qualify one had to be over the age of 25 and have considerable wealth above the lure of bribes and influential.The decurions were not elected by towns people. Usually hose who joined the Aedile joined the council
183
What did Decurions ( guria) have to offer?
➢ Controlled all aspects of public life, civic finances, taxation, public religion and buildings, regulated commerce.
➢ Some professions were banned from the Curia; e.g. actors, gladiators, grave-diggers, etc.
184
The comitium (the electoral assembly) number unknown consisted of what?
All member citizens of the town populous voters divided into tribes
185
Whats was role of the electoral assembly?
Met once a year to vote for the duumviri and the aedilies, presented themselves as fixed pairs in an election team.
May have met in the comitium or some other large building
