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Biology -Phenotype > Eukaryotes > Flashcards

Eukaryotes Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Site of oxidative metabolism

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2
Q

Why are topologically equivalent pathways good?

A

As molecules can move between compartments without crossing a membrane

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3
Q

What is the significance of the cristae and thylakoids?

A

extensive internal invaginations for max SA and capacity for energy metabolism

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4
Q

Name for ETC supercomplex on cristae membrane

A

Respirasome

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5
Q

How are cristae insulated?

A

Narrow junctions at neck = diffusion limitation

Densely packed with ETC complexes

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6
Q

Name fro type of plastid from which many diff types are derived?

A

PROPLASTID

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7
Q

What do gerontoplast plastids do?

A

senescing chloroplasts

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8
Q

What do TOC and TIC stand fro in terms of chloroplasts?

A

TOC- translocase of outerchoroplast membrqne

TIC- translocase of innerchoroplast membrqne

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9
Q

4 pathways fro thylakoid import

A

1- Sec pathway
2- SRP-like pathway
3-TAT
4- spontaneous insertion

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10
Q

How are number of mitochondria and chloroplasts controlled?

A

Fission (Dynamin) and fusion (GTPase)

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11
Q

Where does glycosylation occur and what happens?

A

In ER- ADDITION OF n-LINKED GLYCANS TO PROTEINS

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12
Q

Name of flattened membrane sacks in golgi

A

Cisternae

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13
Q

Primary function of golgi?

A 
polysaccharide factory
(processing of N-linked glycans on glycoproteins adn synthesis of glycolipids
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14
Q

What are functional compartments of golgi?

A

Cis- Medial- Trans- cisternae

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15
Q

function of endocytic pathway

A

transport macromolecules from external environemnt to lysosomes/vacuole for digestion

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16
Q

What does cell wall affect in endocytic pathway?

A

precluded phagocytosis (but not endocytosis)

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17
Q

2 layers of COPII transport vesicle coat

A 
Adaptor proteins (interact with membrane)
cage proteins (assembled in lattice)- deforms membrane
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18
Q

what is characterisitc of ER resident proteins?

A

primary structure of short aa sequences

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19
Q

effect of KDEL signals in ER residency

A

Necessary for residency of protein AND sufficient for causing residency of secreted protien if transplanted

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20
Q

how do KDEL signals maintain ER proteins in the ER?

A

continuous retrieval from golgi

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21
Q

How is cholesterol stransported?

A

As LDL (low density lipoprotein )particles

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22
Q

`What are the 2 protein layers of CCV’s ?

A

clathrin complex adn Adaptin complex

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23
Q

4 fates of proteins going to golgi

A

1- to PM/ secreted (default)
2- to CCV
3- return to ER
4- retention in golgi

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24
Q

SNARES are present on which proteins?

A

ALL

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25
Q

What happens when v-SNARE matches t-SNARE?

A

compatible
forms complex
pulls closer to membrane

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26
Q

What is the acrosomal vesicle?

A

membranous organelle located over the anterior part of the sperm nucleus that is highly conserved throughout evolution. This acidic vacuole contains a number of hydrolytic enzymes that, when secreted, help the sperm penetrate the egg’s coats.

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27
Q

In mammilian fertilisation what does the sperm first bind to?

A

Zona Pellucida

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28
Q

What event occurs after fertilisation of 1st sperm to prevent any more fertilising the egg? (mammals)

A

Membrane depolarisation

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29
Q

What triggers mulitple waves of calcium?

A

applications of a calcium ionophores

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30
Q

What is the consequence of positive feedback of calcium during mammalian fertilisation?

A

Calcium induced calcium release

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31
Q

What is released from corticol granules under PM to toughen up zygote in harsh condition?

A

polysaccharides- after fertilisation

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32
Q

3 functions of calcium wave following fertilisation?

A

1- depolymerise membrane potential = block polyspermy
2- harden zona pellucida
3- stimulate centrosome duplication and anaphase promoting factor

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33
Q

What are mendels 2 laws of assortment?

A

1- alleles separate in equal proportion
2- alleles at diff. loci assort independantly
(2nd law should state UNLINKED characters assort independently)

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34
Q

What are dimorphic chromosomes?

A

diff. length e.g. Sex chromosomes-

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35
Q

What is result of linked alleles not assorting independantly?

A

Parental characters remain together in progeny

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36
Q

What does hemizygous mean?

A

posseses a single allele at a locus

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37
Q

What are polytene chromosomes?

A

large chromosomes which have thousands of DNA strands e.g. in Drosophila

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38
Q

Difference between coupled and repulsed alleles?

A

Coupled- WT on 1 chromosome and mutant on the other

Repulsed- each chromosome carries 1 of each

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39
Q

What is recombination?

A

exchange of genetic material between the maternal and paternal chromosomes

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40
Q

When does recombination happen?

A

meiosis prophase 1

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41
Q

What is a holliday junction?

A

4 strands containing branched intermediate

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42
Q

What can suppress recombination?

A

Chromosomal inversions

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43
Q

What is a nucleosome?

A

DNA wrapped twice around histone protein

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44
Q

What are the 5 elements of a protein coding gene (RNA)?

A

cap, 5’ UTR, coding sequence, 3’ UTR, poly-A tail

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45
Q

Whats the modal length of an exon?

A

111bl (37 codons)

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46
Q

What are centromeres mostly composed of?

A

alpha-satellites

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47
Q

How do spindle fibres attach to centromere during mitosis?

A

Using kinetochore

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48
Q

What is the repeated sequence in telomeres and how long are they?

A

TTAGGG- 10,000 bp long

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49
Q

What to retrotransposons exist to do?

A

Reproduce themselves

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50
Q

What happens to density of genes on chromosomes near centromeres and telomeres?

A 
centromere = low/none
telomere = high
51
Q

How many exons in the average gene?

A

4

52
Q

What is average length of exons with respect to histones?

A

Approx same length as DNA wrapping round histones

53
Q

What is satallite DNA?

A

Repetitive elements only simple sequence repeats (1-6bp long)

54
Q

What does CDK stand for?

A

cyclin dependent kinases

55
Q

What is MPF and what does it do?

A

maturation promoting factor- stimulates mitotic and meiotic phases

56
Q

why is fission yeast good for studying the cell cycle

A

can tell where it is in the cell cycle by its size

57
Q

What are the 2 subunits of MPF?

A

CDK and cyclin B

58
Q

What does cdk actually do?

A

its a kinase so adds a phosphate onto a serine or threonine group

59
Q

What are the 2 approaches to genetic studies?

A

Forward and reverse genetics

60
Q

What are 3 methods of identifying mutant genes?

A

1) insertion mutagenesis
2) linkage mapping and map based cloning
3) whole genome sequencing

61
Q

What does insertion mutagenesis rely on?

A

transposons

62
Q

What is the hypothesis of linkage gene mapping?

A

Recombination frequency of a gene pair is related to the distance between them on a chromosome

63
Q

What is the equation fro recombination frequency?

A

total number of recombination events/ total no. of gametes tested X100

64
Q

how are linkage maps generated?

A

combination of recombination frequencies of different genes

65
Q

What does it mean that genetic and linkage maps are COLINEAR?

A

same order

66
Q

What are 2 types of molecular markers?

A

INDELS (insertion/deletion)

SNP’s (single nucleotide polymorphism)

67
Q

what is cosegregation?

A

transmission, together, of 2 or more genes on the same chromosome, as a result of their being in very close physical proximity to one another

68
Q

What does map based cloning eliminate?

A

Estimation

69
Q

What are steroid hormones used for?

A

long, slow pathways, activating gene regulatory proteins

70
Q

What are the 3 types of cell surface receptors?

A

enzyme-linked, G-protein coupled and ion channel

71
Q

What are enzyme linked surface receptors capable of?

A

MASSIVE AMPLIFICATION

72
Q

What type of surface receptors are used as major drug targets?

A

G-protein coupled receptors

73
Q

How can GABA ion channel recreptors be used as muscle relaxants?

A

as they inhibit action potential by maintaining membrane hyperpolarisation

74
Q

What does adrenaline use to trigger specific tissue responses?

A

cAMP

75
Q

What is a method of visualising ion channels using a specific probe?

A

transgenic chameleon probes = colour change detected by ratiometric sensors

76
Q

What can be used to measure ion channels?

A

Patch clamp

77
Q

What is ion selectivity determined by?

A

ionic radius and hydration energy

78
Q

What are the 2 types of post synaptic potentials?

A

excitatory e.g. glutamate channels and inhibitory e.g. GABA

79
Q

What are the 3 types of synapse?

A

neuromuscular, neurone-neurone, neuroglandular

80
Q

How are voltage gated channels associated with movement of charges within a protein?

A

helices move with change i membrane potential as contain charged residues

81
Q

How many proteins per cell?

A

1,000,000,000

82
Q

What are the 3 distinct regulation stages of transcription?

A

Initiation, Elongation. Termination

83
Q

What is the function of transcription factors?

A

recruit/ block recruitment of other proteins + recruits initiation complex

84
Q

What is the function of the capping enzyme during transcription?

A

Cps first nucleotide to exit polymerase which protects RNA from degradation

85
Q

What is the rate of transcription (nucleotides per second)?

A

72

86
Q

What is the average time taken to transcribe a gene?

A

4.5 mins

87
Q

What happens to nucleosomes during transciption?

A

dissociate and associate

88
Q

How many protein coding genes in human genome?

A

20,000

89
Q

what brings polymerisation to a halt during transcription

A

cleavage and poly adenylation complex

90
Q

what does the pre-initiaion complex recruit during transcription?

A

polymerase

91
Q

What do miRNA’s do?

A

can degrade /inhibit mRNA

92
Q

Why is miRNA ability to degrade/inhibit mRNA useful in genome?

A

defence against retrotransposons and viral infection

93
Q

What is an oocyte?

A

cell in an ovary which may undergo meiotic division to form an ovum.

94
Q

What type of cleavage is it when the whole cell divides?

A

holoblastic cleavage

95
Q

What does the first division after fertilisation determine in many bilaterians?

A

radial symmetry

96
Q

What is teloblastic cleavage?

A

only part of fertilised egg divides (as seen in teleost fish)

97
Q

What organ systems does the ectoderm go on to make?

A

nervous system + epidermis

98
Q

What organ systems does the endoderm go on to make?

A

gut +associated digestive and respiratory organs

99
Q

What organ systems does the mesoderm go on to make?

A

muscle, skeleton, excretory system and gonad

100
Q

What is myogenesis?

A

formation of muscle tissue from myoblast precursors

101
Q

What is a syncytium?

A

a single cell or cytoplasmic mass containing several nuclei

102
Q

What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric stem cell division?

A

symmetric= either 2 x commited or 2 x stem cell- asymmetric = 1 of each

103
Q

what can a totipotent stem cell differentiate into?

A

everthing inc. extra-embryoninc tissue

104
Q

what can a pluripotent stem cell differentiate into?

A

all cells in embryo and adult

105
Q

what can a multipotent stem cell differentiate into?

A

all cell types in a tissue or organ

106
Q

what can a oligopotent stem cell differentiate into?

A

several related cell types

107
Q

what can a unipotent stem cell differentiate into?

A

one 1 type of cell

108
Q

What regulate stem cells and maintain in stable undifferentiated state?

A

TF, Epigenetics, microRNA

109
Q

What does in vitro mean?

A

it happens outside of a living organism

110
Q

What does in vivo mean?

A

with or within an entire, living organism.

111
Q

What type of stem cell produce red blood cells?

A

Haematopoietic (very productive)

112
Q

Overexpression of what can reprogram differentiated cells to a pluripotent state?

A

Yamanake /OSKM transcription factors

113
Q

What generates the polar ejection force during mitosis?

A

plus end motors of the microtubules

114
Q

what synchronises spindle formation, chromosome condensation, NEB and motor protein localisation to initiate mitosis?

A

CDK

115
Q

What is the name for the stable attachment of microtubules to the kinetochore?

A

amphitellic

116
Q

What acts as chromosome glue between sister chromatids?

A

cohesins and condensins (SMC proteins)

117
Q

What is the name of ring the structure stabilsing siser chromatids make of SMC proteins?

A

Solenoid

118
Q

What is transdifferentiation?

A

with or within an entire, living organism.

119
Q

What is a neoblast?

A

non-differentiated cells found in flatworms called planarians

120
Q

What are 2 methods of cells changing fate during regenration?

A

transdifferentiation and undifferentiation to a pluripotent state

121
Q

What happens during methylation?

A

charge left intact - methyl groups recruit diff diff/ set of proteins which interact with DNA in a diff. way-generally tightening

122
Q

What happens during acetylation?

A

K and R basic residues are affected- their chatge is removed and the interaction between histone tails and DNA loosens = ready for transcription

123
Q

Are epigenetics inherited?

A

YES- methylation points inherited therfore have same genetic profile as parent cell or organism

Biology -Phenotype (5 decks)

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