Ethical Theories(2021) Flashcards
Definition:
Ethics
Study of Principles relating to right and wrong conduct
- Broader concept than morality
- Higher level activity that evaluates moral systems
- Creates new ways of evaluating moral problems
Difference Between
Morals and Ethics
Morals
- Morality refers to guidelines that determine what you should do
- Also lets you figure out if a decision is right or wrong
- What is considered right or wrong based on social custom
Ethics
- What is right or wrong based on reason
- Broader than morality
- Higher level activity that evaluates moral systems
- Creates new ways of evaluating moral problems
Ethical Reasoning:
How to determine if a branch of ethical reasoning is rational or not?
If it is rational, it relies upon logical reasoning from facts or commonly held facts.
An ethical argument is not strong unless it presents facts or values.
Ethical Analysis/Reasoning
Basic Description
Understanding how to apply abstract ethical principles in real life.
- Analysis helps make decisions when the right thing to do isn’t clear cut
- Can be a way to evaluate an issue and choose a course of action
- Can help illuminate many sides of an issue
- Can help produce persuasive arguments
- Ethical reasoning can be taught
Ethical Reasoning:
Common Logical Fallacies (2)
Many/Any Fallacy
Equivalence Fallacy
Ethical Reasoning:
Many/Any Fallacy
Summary and Example
Many/Any Fallacy:
Any option is acceptable after observing that many options are acceptable
Example: A person may take many routes home from work
- All of these routes are “good” in the sense that the person reaches their destination safety and in reasonable time
- This does not imply that all routes between work and home are good
Ethical Reasoning:
Equivalence Fallacy:
Description and Example
Equivalence Fallacy:
Confuses similarity with equality
Example: Adolf Hitler is evil incarnate
- Concluding that everything Hitler did or said was evil would be an equivalence fallacy
Example: We say “God is good”
- Equivalence fallacy to conclude that good and God are identical
Major Ethical Theories (8)
Theories Considered Unusable:
- Subjective Relativism
- Cultural Relativism
- Divine Command Theory
- Ethical Egoism
More Useful Theories:
- Kantianism
- Act Utilitarianism
- Rule Utilitarianism
- Social Contract Theory
Formulation Approaches
covered in this class (5)
- Kantian First Formulation
- Stability
- Self Interest
- Kantian Second Formulation
- Individuals treated fairly
- Utilitarianism
- What helps the most
- Act and Rule Variations
- Social Contract Theory
Ethical Theories:
Relativism (General)
Relativism:
- No universal norms of right and wrong
- One can say “X is right”, another can say “X is wrong”
- Both would be correct
Ethical Theories:
Types of Relativism
Subjective Relativism
Cultural Relativism
Ethical Theories:
Subjective Relativism
Subjective relativism
- Each person decides right and wrong for themselves
- What’s right for you may not be right for me
The Case for
Subjective Relativism
- Well-meaning and intelligent people disagree on moral issues
- Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless
Case Against
Subjective Relativism
- Blurs distinction between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to do
- Makes no more distinction between actions of different people
- SR and tolerance are two different things
- Decisions may not be based on reason
- Not a workable ethical theory
Ethical Theories:
Cultural Relativism
Basic Description
- What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s actual moral guidelines
- These guidelines vary from place to place and over time
- A particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in another society or at another time
Case for Cultural Relativism
- Different social contexts demand different moral guidelines
- It is arrogant for one society to judge another
- Morality is reflected in actual behavior
Case Against
Cultural Relativism
- Because two societies do have different moral views doesn’t mean they ought to have different views
- Doesn’t explain how moral guidelines are determined or evolve (tradition, folklore, etc)
- Provides no resolutions for cultures in conflict
- Societies do share certain core values
- Only indirectly based on reason
- Not a workable ethical theory
Ethical Theories:
Divine Command Theory
Basic Description
- Good actions are those aligned with god’s will
- Bad actions are those contrary to god’s will
- Holy books reveal god’s will
- We should use holy books as moral decision-making guidelines
Case for
Divine Command Theory
- We owe obedience to a creator
- God is all-good and all-knowing
- God is the ultimate authority
Case Against
Divine Command Theory
- Different holy books disagree
- Society is multicultural
- Some moral problems not addressed in scripture
- “The good” is not equal to “god”
- Based on obedience, not reason (maybe)
Ethical Theories:
Ethical Egoism
Basic Description
- Each person should focus exclusively on their self-interest
- The morally right action for a person to take in a particular situation is the action that will provide the person with the maximum long term benefit
- Ayn Rand says, “Voluntary trade alone can assure that human interaction is mutually beneficial.”
- What is in a person’s self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others
Case for
Ethical Egoism
- Practical moral philosophy
- Better to let other people take care of themselves
- The community can benefit when individuals put themselves first
- Other moral principles are rooted in self-interest
Case Against Ethical Egoism
- Just because it’s easy does not make it good
- We do in fact know a lot about what is good for someone else
- Self-interest can lead to immoral behavior
- Other moral principles are better
- People who take the good of others into account live happier lives
- No motivation to cooperate with other individuals if they cannot cooperate in return for something that is beneficial to you
- Not a workable theory
Ethical Theories
Kantianism:
Basic Description
- Good will is the desire to do the right thing
- Immanuel Kant: Only thing in the world good without qualification is good will.
- Rational beings should cultivate a desire to do the right thing
- Moral laws are “universal”
- From the “Age of Enlightenment”
- Focuses on intention behind actions
- Describes a “Categorical Imperative” with two different formulations
Kantian
Categorical Imperative
Formulations:
Basic Ideas
First Formulation
Act only from rules that you can at the same time will to be be universal moral laws
Second Formulation
Act so that you treat both yourself and others as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an end
Kantian First Formulation
- Formulate the Rule
-
Generalize the rule such that it is universal
- Assume Common Knowledge
- Determine if the world in which the universal rule was enforced would reach an equilibrium(stable)
- Ask:
- Can I rationally act on my own rule?
- Can I rationally achieve my goal in a world with this universal rule?
- If the answer to either is NO, the rule is not acceptable
Kantian Second Formulation:
Questions and Basic Idea
- Consider the Action
- Are individuals being used as means to an end?
- Decide whether individuals are being manipulated or acting of free will and for themselves
- Exchange money for goods
- Individuals treating each other as ends
- Each acting in self interest with clear choices
Case for Kantianism
- Rational - can reason about a solution to ethical problem
- Produces universal moral guidelines
- Treats all persons as moral equals
- He argued that human concepts and categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the source of morality
Case Against Kantianism
- Sometimes no rule adequately characterizes an action
- There is no way to resolve a conflict between rules
- Kantianism allows no exceptions to moral laws
Ethical Theories:
Utilitarianism:
Principle of Utility
An action is right (or wrong)
to the extent that it
increases (or decreases)
the total happiness
of the affected parties.
(Can also be called the Greatest Happiness Principle)
Ethical Theories:
Utilitarianism
Basic Description
Uses the Principle of Utility(Happiness) as a basis
- Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent
- Focuses on the consequences
- Consequentialist theory
- Two types:
- Act Utilitarianism - evaluates individual actions
- Rule Utilitarianism - evaluates proposed rules
- Attempt to measure the “happiness” or “utility” of an action or rule
Act Utilitarianism
vs
Rule Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism
- Moral evaluation of Acts
- Evaluate by adding up change in happiness due to actions
Rule Utilitarianism
- Moral evaluation of Rules
- Evaluate by asking if the rule would increase total happiness if followed
Choosing an Action:
Act Utilitarianism
vs
Rule Utilitarianism
Act
Considers a single action( on a case by case basis) and asks whether it will improve utility
Rule
Will instead take an action if it conforms to an already justified rule
Rule Utilitarianism:
What is a
Justified Rule?
A Justified Rule
is one that exists because
it improves utility more than
other possible rules
or not having a rule
Ethical Theories:
Act Utilitarianism:
Basic Description
Applies Principle of Utility to an action.
- Add up the change in happiness of all affected beings/stakeholders
- One way is with the Bentham Criteria
- If change in happiness > 0, action is good
- If change in happiness < 0, action is bad
Ethical Theories:
Utilitarianism:
Bentham Categories for
Weighing Pleasure/Pain
(7)
- Intensity
- Duration
- Certainty
- Extent
- Propinquity - geographically near, kinship, proximity
- Fecundity - fertility (more of the same will follow)
- Purity - pleasure won’t follow pain
Case for
Act Utilitarianism
- Focuses on happiness
- Down to earth (practical)
- Comprehensive
Case Against
Act Utilitarianism
- Unclear whom to include in calculations
- Too much work
- Ignores our innate sense of duty
- Susceptible to the problem of moral luck
- Moral Luck: Sometimes actions do not have intended consequences.
- Moral worth of action is dependent on consequences that may not be under control of a person
- Moral Luck: Sometimes actions do not have intended consequences.
What is
the problem of
Moral Luck?
Moral Luck:
Sometimes actions do not have intended consequences.
- Moral worth of action is dependent on consequences that may not be under control of a person
Ethical Theories:
Rule Utilitarianism:
Basic Description
- We ought to adopt moral rules
- If followed by everyone will lead to greatest increase in total happiness
- Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to individual actions
- Rule utilitarianism applies principle of utility to moral rules
- An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the effected parties
Utilitarian Rule Formulation
- Specify the Options
- Specify the possible Consequences for each option
- For each option, estimate the Probability of each of its consequences
- There may be some you can’t control
- Estimate the Utility of each consequence
- Using the Principle of Utility
- Identify the Best Prospect
Laws that Protect Whistle Blowers
- False Claims Act
- Whistleblower Protection Act
Case for
Rule Utilitarianism
- Compared to act utilitarianism, it is easier to perform the utilitarian calculus.
- Not every moral decision requires performing utilitarian calculus
- Moral rules survives exceptional situations
- Avoids the problem of moral luck
- Workable Ethical Theory
Case Against
Utilitarianism in General
- All consequences must be measured on a single scale
- Utilitarianism ignores an unjust distribution of goods
- Utilitarianism does not mean: “The greater good of the greatest number”
- That requires a principle of justice
- What happens when a conflict arrises between the principle of Utility and a principle of Justice?
Ethical Theories:
Social Contract Theory
Basics
- Thomas Hobbes
- “State of nature”
- We implicitly have a social contract - Establishment of moral rules to govern relations among citizens - Government capable of enforcing the rules
- Jean Jacques Rousseau
- In ideal society, no one is above the rules
- That prevents society from enacting bad rules
People act towards the common good out of self-interest without agreement
- Morality is the result of an implicit agreement among rational beings who understand that there is a tension between selfinterest and the common good
- The common good is best realized when everyone cooperates
- Cooperation occurs when those acting selfishly suffer negative consequences
- Examples: Recycling, energy conservation
James Rachel’s
Definition of
Social Contract Theory
Morality consists in:
The set of rules governing how people treat each other,
that rational people will agree to accept for their mutual benefit
on the condition that others follow those rules as well
Kinds of Rights
- Negative Right:
- A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alone
- Positive Right:
- A right obligating others to do something on your behalf
- Absolute Right:
- A right guaranteed without exception
- Limited Right:
- A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances
Kinds of Rights:
Negative Right
Negative Right:
A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alone
Kinds of Rights:
Positive Right
Positive Right:
A right obligating others to do something on your behalf
Kinds of Rights:
Absolute Right
Absolute Right:
A right guaranteed without exception
Kinds of Rights:
Limited Right
Limited Right:
A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances
John Rawl’s
Principles of Justice
- Each person may claim a “fully adequate” number of basic rights and liberties, so long as those claims are consistent with everyone else have a claim to the same rights and liberties
- Any social and economic inequalities must:
- Be associated with positions that every has a fair and equal opportunity to achieve
- Be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society
Case for
Social Contract Theory
- Framed in language of rights
- Explains why people act in self-interest without common agreement
- Provides clear analysis of certain citizen/ government problems
Case Against
Social Contract Theory
- No one signed contract
- Some actions have multiple characterizations
- Conflicting rights problem
- May unjustly treat people who cannot uphold contract
Approaches to Morality and Ethics:
Objectivism vs Relativism
- Objectivism: Morality has an existence outside the human mind
- Relativism: Morality is a human invention
- Kantianism, Utilitarianism, and social contract theory examples of objectivism
