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Food, Population & Environment > Environmental Policy and Air Pollution > Flashcards

Environmental Policy and Air Pollution Flashcards

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1
Q

Air pollution in US can be controlled by…

A

(1) increasing mass transportation
(2) reducing subsidies on use of cars
(3) relying more on emission charges
(4) expanding use of tradable emission permits

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2
Q

Air quality is _____ in industrializing nations because of factories and power plants, automobiles, and the use of organic material for cooking and home heating.

A

worsening

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3
Q

Many power plants and factories use…

A

outdated, heavily-polluting text because it is cheaper and quicker to build.

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4
Q

According to WHO survey, most polluted cities globally are in…

A

India.

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5
Q

Emissions Trading Program (ETP)

A

Emissions “cap” and “allowance”
“Cap” and “trade” policy
Non-compliant sources have flexibility (Reduce emissions and buy allowances)
Anyone can participate, including environmentalist groups

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6
Q

Clean Air Acts

A

Provide federal air pollution regulations

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7
Q

What are some measures of the Clean Air Acts?

A

(1) Funds pollution control research, set standards for air quality, and encourages standards for point sources
(2) States required to monitor emissions and develop/implement their own regulations

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8
Q

What are the achievements and shortcomings of the Clean Air Acts?

A

Achievements: Levels of major air pollutants decreased
Shortcomings: Command-and-control approach is inefficient in setting targets and not cost-effective

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9
Q

Acid Rain Program (Clean Air Act of 1990)

A

Set up emissions trading program for sulfur dioxide, allowing permits for SO2 pollution and allowing emitters to buy/sell/trade these allowances

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10
Q

The Acid Rain Program created…

A

a strong economic incentive to reduce emissions.

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11
Q

Environmental Protection Act (EPA)

A

Created to oversee all environmental laws

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12
Q

acid deposition

A

precipitation or dry deposition with pH lower than 5.6

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13
Q

Acid deposition occurs due to…

A

burning fossil fuels, releasing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that react with atmospheric water and oxygen to form low pH levels.

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14
Q

Acid deposition is a massive problem in…

A

expansive areas downwind from major industrial areas.

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15
Q

Acid deposition damages…

A

crops, erodes stone buildings, and corrodes vehicles.

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16
Q

smog

A

general term for a mixture of air pollutants that can accumulate as a result of fossil fuel combustion, especially over areas with heavy automobile traffic

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17
Q

industrial smog

A

sulfuric acid suspended in droplets and a variety of particulates (soot)

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18
Q

photochemical smong

A

consists of secondary pollutants formed in a complex series of reactions involving solar radiation

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19
Q

What are ideal conditions for the formation of photochemical smog?

A

windless, warm, sunny days

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20
Q

How can smog be reduced?

A

(1) Restricting emissions from power plants, oil refineries, and other factories
(2) Regular vehicle inspections for emissions levels
(3) Improved technology on cars that reduce their emissions

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21
Q

air pollutants

A

gases and particulate material added to atmosphere that affect climate or harm living organisms

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22
Q

Air pollution is the…

A

release of air pollutants.

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23
Q

Public policy and improved technology has…

A

helped reduce most types of outdoor air pollution in industrialized regions.

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24
Q

Serious global or regional air pollution problems result from…

A

pollutants that have long ranges and are not easily degraded.

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25
Q

Greenhouse effect

A

Re-radiation downward by “greenhouse gases” in atmosphere
Heat trapped near Earth’s surface

26
Q

What are human inputs of the greenhouse effect?

A

(1) carbon dioxide
(2) chlorofluorocarbons
(3) methane
(4) nitrous oxide

27
Q

Mean global temperature _____ about 0.6C (1F) in past 100 years.

A

rose

28
Q

Warming greater at…

A

poles than equator and greater at night.

29
Q

Mobile and stationary source releases…

A

primary pollutants.

30
Q

Chemical reactions in atmosphere can form…

A

secondary pollutants from primary pollutants.

31
Q

Indoor air pollutants can include…

A

(1) tobacco smoke
(2) radon
(3) formaldehyde
(4) asbestos

32
Q

Indoor air pollution can be an even greater heath threat than…

A

outdoor air pollution.

33
Q

_____ causes indoor air pollution in the developing world.

A

Burning fuel

34
Q

radon

A

radioactive gas that result from natural decay of uranium in soil, rock and water

35
Q

Tobacco smoke and radon causes…

A

increased risk of cancer.

36
Q

volatile organic compounds

A

variety of chemicals emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids

37
Q

Most widespread source of indoor air pollution is…

A

living organisms (dust mites, fungi, bacteria, etc.).

38
Q

Indoor air quality can be improved by…

A

(1) drying wood before burning
(2) cooking outdoors
(3) shifting to less-polluting fuels
(4) installing hoods, chimneys, and windows to increase ventilation

39
Q

Because market prices do not exist for many environmental/natural resources, economists use…

A

non-market valuation techniques to infer prices.

40
Q

What are the three-commonly used non-market valuation techniques?

A

(1) travel cost method
(2) property value method
(3) contingent valuation method

41
Q

travel cost method (focus on quantity response)

A

cost-benefit analysis used to calculate willingness to pay for a constant price facility
requires observations of number of trips to environmental amenity from number of regions
price of assessing goods equals opportunity cost of time and travel cost

42
Q

property value method (focus on price response)

A

requires market data/attributes and environmental metrics

43
Q

contingent value method

A

requires survey-based data collection
survey asks how much money people willing to pay to maintain existence of environmental feature

44
Q

Pollution control can be achieved through…

A

regulatory policies such as standards, taxes and permits.

45
Q

Achieving pollution control at lowest possible social cost typically requires…

A

non-uniform emission control (may be difficult in practice).

46
Q

Economists prefer to put a price on pollution by…

A

using emission taxes or tradable emission permits.

47
Q

voluntary programs

A

non-mandatory investment in pollution control, equipment, and recycling

48
Q

direct controls (main instrument)

A

EPA regulations or standards for air and water quality
prohibits use of “dirty” fuels
require processes for clean-up

49
Q

subsidies to prevent pollution (market-based approach)

A

cover some cost of pollution control equipment or a fixed reward for every reduction in emissions

50
Q

What are the market-based approaches to pollution control?

A

(1) subsidies
(2) taxes on emissions
(3) cap and trade programs

51
Q

Command-and-control regulation requires firms to…

A

increase their costs by installing anti-pollution equipment, taking on the social costs of pollution into account.

52
Q

What are the difficulties of command-and-control environmental regulation?

A

(1) offers no incentive to improve quality of environment beyond standard set by particular law
(2) inflexibility; requires same standard for all polluters
(3) regulations written by legislators and EPA subject to compromises in political process

53
Q

market-oriented tools

A

create incentives to allow firms some flexibility in reducing pollution including pollution charges, green taxes, and marketable permits

54
Q

pollution charge

A

tax imposed on quantity of pollution that a firm emits

55
Q

Pollution charges gives firms…

A

an incentive to figure out ways to reduce its emissions as long as marginal cost of reducing emissions is less than tax.

56
Q

marketable permits

A

government determines overall quantity of pollution to meet national pollution standards
number of permits allowing quantity of pollution divided among firms that emit pollutant
permits to pollute can be sold or given to firms free

57
Q

What are criticisms of marketable permits?

A

Environmentalists object to cap-and-trade as firms are given license to pollute

58
Q

The marginal _____ and _____ of environmental protection needs to be examined.

A

benefits; costs

59
Q

What is the first general principle of marginalism?

A

marginal benefits and costs of environmental protection should be equal at desirable level of protection

60
Q

What is the second general principle of marginalism?

A

pollution control occurs at lowest overall cost if marginal cost of control are equated across polluters

61
Q

Why should the government protect the environment?

A

Externalities and other sources of market failure.

62
Q

Benefit-cost analysis help to answer questions like…

A

(1) How much pollution to control?
(2) What to spend on habitat protection measures?
(3) What to spend on habitat protection measures?
(4) What level of support to offer for soil erosion control?
(5) How much to spend on protection of open space?

Food, Population & Environment (7 decks)

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