Endocrinology Flashcards
how do beta 2 agonists work?
bind beta 2 receptors, mimicking action of catecholamines
relax smooth muscle in bronchial tree [broncho-dilation]
why can a pituitary tumour cause vision problems?
optic chiasm lies adjacent to pituitary gland/pituitary
which types of drugs can cause medication induced diabetes?
corticosteroids thiazide diuretics beta blockers antipsychotics statins
examples of diseases that cause “endocrine diabetes”
acromegaly
cushings
Fasted state hormone in glucose regulation
Glucagon
Fed state hormone in glucose regulation
Insulin
Alpha cells of pancreas produce..
Glucagon
Beta cells pancreas produce..
Insulin
Where do glycogen conversion to glucose + gluconeogenesis occur
Liver
how do cortisol levels vary during the day?
high in the morning
decrease during the day
what hormones [produced by the hypothalamus] are secreted by the posterior pituitary
oxytocin
ADH [vasopressin]
describe action of ADH
distal tubule H2O reabsorption [water retention]
to dilute the circulation/^blood vol
actions of oxytocin
breast milk production
labour contractions
ACTH acts on the..
adrenal cortex
which hormone continuously inhibits prolactin?
dopamine
what is Grave’s disease + its cause
autoimmune thyroid disorder > hyperthyroidism
IgG antibodies bind to TSH receptor + stimulate thyroid hormone production + cause diffuse smooth enlargement
2 types of autoimmune thyroiditis
Hashimoto’s [goitre]
atrophic [shrunken]
treatment of thyroid malignancy
thyroidectomy
neck dissection for lymph nodes
radioactive iodine
asymptomatic thyroid nodules that increase in size, become hard and irregular may suggest what pathology?
carcinoma
treatment of primary hypothyroidism
levothyroxine
describe thyroid hormone axis
hypothalamus > TRH (thyrotropin-releasing)
pituitary > TSH (thyroid-stimulating)
thyroid > T4 [+some T3]
in circulation, T4-> more active T3
describe the hormone axis that leads to testosterone or progesterone/oestrogen release
hypothalamus > GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing)
pituitary > LH, FSH
testes > testosterone
ovaries > progesterone, oestrogen
hormone axis that leads to cortisol release
hypothalamus > CRH (corticotropin-releasing)
pituitary > ACTH (adrenocorticotropic)
adrenal cortex > cortisol
growth hormone hormone axis
hypothalamus > GHRH (growth-hormone releasing)
pituitary > GH
liver > IGF1 (insulin-like growth factor)
describe the pathway that leads to prolactin inhibition
hypothalalmus > dopamine (-ve action on pituitary)
pituitary inhibited from producing prolactin
action of somatostatin on pituitary
negative action preventing release of growth hormone
what would levels of TSH and T4 look like in hypothyroid disease?
low T4
high TSH
what would levels of TSH and T4 look like in hypopituitary disease?
low/norm TSH
low T4
what would levels of TSH and T4 look like in Grave’s disease?
high T4
low TSH [negative feedback]
what would TSH and T4 levels look like in patients with genetic hormone resistance [where pituitary doesn’t respond to -ve feedback]?
high TSH
high T4
describe levels of LH/FSH and testosterone in a male patient with primary hypogonadism
low testosterone
high LH/FSH
describe levels of LH/FSH and testosterone in a male pateint with hypopituitary
low testosterone
norm/low FSH/LH
describe levels of LH/FSH and testosterone in a male pateint with anabolic steroid use
low testosterone
suppressed LH/FSH
(steroids inhibit pathway)
describe levels of LH/FSH and oestradiol in female patient with hypopituitary.
& periods?
norm/low LH/FSH
low oestradiol
+ amenorrhoea
describe levels of LH/FSH and oestradiol in female patient with primary ovarian failure [or menopause]
high LH/FSH
low oestradiol
describe levels of ACTH and cortisol in patient with primary adrenal insufficiency
low cortisol
high ACTH
how does patient with primary adrenal insufficiency respond to synacthen test
poor response
what is the synacthen test?
patient given synacthen [ACTH]
test for cortisol response
describe levels of ACTH and cortisol in patient with hypopituitary.
low cortisol
low/norm ACTH
what hormone do you measure to investigate growth hormone pathway problems & why?
IGF-1
GH is pulsatile/ fluctuates so not useful
[also GH stimulation test used]
and OGTT for acromeg
how is prolactin measured?
phlebotomy
BUT stress hormone! so may be raised [white coat]
so can use cannula and take blood over 1 hr [should decrease if raised due to stress]
a benign pituitary adenoma may put pressure on what in the cavernous sinus??
cranial nerves 3,4,5
main symptom of benign pituitary adenoma causing raised intracranial pressure
headache
a benign pituitary adenoma can erode the sphenoid bone causing leakage of what?
CSF
what sort of visual field loss is caused by benign pituitary tumour pressing on optic chiasm?
bitemporal hemianopia
physical features of hypopituitarism
pale
no body hair
central obesity
reproductive related problems in women with hypopituitarism
infertility
amenorrhoea
what causes cushings DISEASE?
pituitary adenoma > excess cortisol
symptoms of a prolactin microadenoma [of lactotroph cells]
unovulation > infertility galactorrhoea (men&women) amenorrhoea decreased libido possible visual field defect low testosterone in men
growth hormone disorders of increased GH production before and after epiphysial growth plate fusion?
before: gigantism
after: acromegaly
diagnosis of cushing’s syndrome
dexamethasone suppression test to confirm raised cortisol
causes of cushing’s syndrome other than pituitary adenoma
exogenous steroids e.g. for asthma
ectopic neuroendocrine cell tumours > ACTH
adrenal tumour > cortisol
is ACTH measurement in cushing’s syndrome is +ve, what further diagnostic test would you carry out?
CT/MRI pituitary
is ACTH measurement in cushing’s syndrome is -ve, what further diagnostic test would you carry out?
CT/MRI adrenal
diagnostic test for agromegaly
glucose tolerance test
GH not supressed as it should be
difference between suppression and stimulation tests (when you’d use them)
suppression: for suspected over-production
stimulation: for suspected deficiency
when would you do transphenoidal surgery for non-functioning pituitary tumour?
if threatening eye sight
or progressively increasing in size
diagnosis of prolactinoma
prolactin test
prolactinoma treatment
dopamine agonist
2 types of pituitary adenoma that lead to ^ed prolactin and must be distinguished
prolactinoma > prolactin
adenoma pressing on pituitary stalk & inhibiting dopamine
hyperandrogenism in females, physical features
hirsutism
temporal balding
acne
what types of regulation is the hypothalamus responsible for?
appetite/thirst menstrual thermal regulation sleep stress mood
where are vasopressin + oxytocin produced stored and released from
produced in hypothalamus
stored + reelased from posterior pituitary
name the 5 hormones relased from the anterior pituitary + where they act
LH/FSH > ovaries/testes GH > many tissues TSH > thyroid prolactin > breasts/gonads ACTH > adrenals
DM causes serious micro and macrovascular problems. Give e.g.s of each
micro: nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy
macro: stroke, MI, renovascular disease, limb ishaemia
what causes type 1 DM
autoimmune destruction of insulin-secreting pancreatic B cells, leading to insulin deficiency
risk factors for type 2 DM
asian male elderly obesity reduced exercise calorie excess alcohol excess
which had higher genetic influence, type 1 or type 2 DM
type 2
other causes of DM [other than type 1 or 2]
drugs: steroids, anti-HIV, newer antipsychotics
Pancreas: -itis, surgery, CA, trauma, destruction [CF, haemochromatosis].
cushings/acromeg/phaeochromocytoma/^thyroid/pregnancy
Sx of hyperglycaemia
polyuria polydipsia unexplained weight loss visual blurring genital thrush lethargy
general principles of type 2 DM Mx
weight loss, diet, exercise
tablets (mono>dual>triple therapy)
insulin
statin, BP control
footcare
bariatric surgery
DVLA
DVLA w/ regards DM?
patient must inform
don’t drive if they have hypos
describe drugs used in type 2 DM algorithm
monotherapy - metformin dual therapy - metformin + sitagliptin/sulfonylurea/pioglitazone triple therapy GLP analogues insulin
S.E.s of metformin and how you might overcome?
nausea
diarrhoea
abdo pain
change to modified release
what is the risk of binge drinking in DM
delayed hypoglycaemia
[alcohol prevents liver releasing glucose, drinks contain sugar so effect of liver damage not noticed til later when drinks have been digested/metabolised]
what advice do you give to insulin-dependent DM patients during acute illness e.g. flu
don't stop insulin illness can ^ insulin requirement despite reduced food intake maintain calorie intake check BM 4X/day safety net
what can happen at DM insulin injection sites?
infection
lipohypertrophy
how can you manage microalbuminuria in DM
ACE-inhibitor
ARB [sartan]
spironalactone
what 2 DM complication s affect the feet
neuropathy
ischaemia/vascular disease
examination findings in DM neuropathy and in ischaemia
neuropathy: reduced sensation (stockings) absent ankle jerk deformity - [charcot joint, pes cavus, claw toes, rocker bottom sole] swelling
ischaemia: absent pulses, cold, ulcers
DM foot Ix and Mx
xray, Doppler
patient regular examination
podiatry/chiropodist
shoe advice
treat infections e.g. fungal
vascular surgery
main hormonle released from the thyroid gland
T4
which hormone is more active t3 or t4
and how are they formed
t3
t4 from thyroid gland
t3 from t4 conversion
Investigations when hyperthyroid is suspected
T3, T4, TSH
thyroid autoantibodies
what would happen to TSH in hyperthyroidism
low
unless pituitary adenoma [^TSH]
what can happen to TFTs in systemic illness
sick euthyroidism
deranged TFTs - usually everything low
Pt.s who need thyroid fn screening
DM type 1 in 1st trimester + postpartum amiodarone/ lithium downs/ turners/ addisons AF hyperlipidaemia
what imaging can be used for the thyroid?
US
isotope scan
60 yr old male lump on L side of neck wife noticed hoarse voice no weight loss visible thyroid mass w/ no lymph nodes normal TFT Most likely diagnosis? a)graves b)CA c)multinodular goitre d)benign thyroid adenoma
b)CA
[recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy, Pt age]
commonest type of thyroid CA
papillary
Mx of thyroid CA
surgical excision
radioiodine
suppression of TSH using thyroxine
what is the diagnostic significance of positive peroxidase antibodies
autoimmune thyroid disease
how does amiodarone affect thyroid fn
hypo or hyper [hypo is more common]
graves disease - thyroid uptake scan shows what
diffusely ‘hot’ gland due to increased uptake
a single ‘hot’ spot on a thyroid uptake scan suggests what
adenoma
carcinoma
Mx of graves
carbimazole or propylthiouracil
60 yr old into A+E
confusion, weight loss, agitation, sweating.
HR 140, AF
CXR: enlarged heart w/ bibasal pleural effusions. Diffuse shadow in upper mediastinum + neck scar.
Likely diagnosis?
thyroid storm [complicated by hyperthyroid-induced HF]
what do you test for in urine for phaeochromocytoma
24 hr for metanephrines/ metadrenaline
where in the adrenals are phaeochromocytomas found
medulla
phaeochormocytoma age and gender commonest
equal sex incidence
30-50
MEN-2 [multiple endocrine neoplasia] consists of :
phaeo
hyperparathyroidism
medullary thyroid ca
MEN-1 [multiple endocrine neoplasia] consists of :
hyperparathyroidism
pituitary tumour
pancreatic tumour
Mx of phaeo
alpha blockade [phenoxybenzamine] followed by beta blockage [propranolol] to avoid massive catecholamine release during surgery
classic triad of phaeochromocytoma
episodic headache
sweating
tachycardia
2 examples of catecholamines
dopamine
noradrenaline
adrenaline
most common cause of addisons in the developed and worldwide
uk - autoimmunek adrenalitis
worldwide - TB
3 layers of the adrenal cortex from outer to inner and what they produce
glomerulosa - aldosterone
fasciculata - cortisol
reticulata - testosterone
why do addisons patients have hyperkalaemia
no production of glucocorticoids OR mineralocorticoids e.g. aldosterone.
Aldosterone increases K+ secretion
diagnostic investigation for addisons
short synacthen test
describe synacthen test
give ACTH
measure cortisol before and 30 min after
cortisol not raised in addisons
mx of addisons
glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement [thrice daily hydrocortisone + od fludrocortisone]
what Ix.s might you do for an ulcer in DM foot
xray [osteomyelitis]
cultures
swabs
Sx of symmetric sensory polyneuropathy [DM]
numbness
tingling
pain
worse at night
Mx of symmetric sensory polyneuropathy [DM]
PCM > amitriptyline > duloxetine/ gabapentin/ pregab > opiates
avoid weight bearing
clinical features of autonomic neuropathy
BP postural drop gastroparesis loss of sinus arrhythmia [vagal neuropathy] reduced cerebrovascular autoregulation urine retention ED gustatory sweating diarrhoea
if hypoglycaemia is severe/ prolonged, what severe outcome can it cause…
death, brain damage
Sx of hypoglycaemia [autonomic and neuroglycopaenia]
autonomic: sweating, anxiety, hunger, tremo;;r, palpitations, dizzy
neuroglycopaenia: confusion, drowsy, vision, coma, seizure
chief causes of hypoglycaemia in DM
insulin/sulfonylureas
^activity/missed meal
accidental/non-accidental overdose
causes of hypoglycaemia in non-DM [EXPLAIN]
EXogenous drugs [diabetic relative, body builder, alcohol, aspirin, ACEi, BB etc.]
Pituitary insufficiency
Liver failure
Addisons
Islet cell tumour/ Insulinoma/ Immune antibodies
Non-pancreatic tumour e.g. fibrosarcoma
describe the relationship between cortisol and glucose
cortisol increases gluconeogenesis + glycogenesis
counteracts insulin
inhibits peripheral glucose use > hyperglycaemia
hypo Mx
15-20g quick acting carb e.g. 200ml OJ
/glycogel in gums/ IV glucose/ IV/IM glucagon if reduced level of consciousness
after - long acting carb e.g. toast
Sx of thyrotoxicosis
diarrhoea weight loss increased appetite over-active sweats heat intolerance palpitations tremor irritable oligomenorrhoea/infertility
clinical signs of thyrotoxicosis
fast irregular pulse [AF/SVT] warm moist skin fine tremor palmar erythema thin hair/ hair loss lid lag, lid retraction [stare], exopthalmus/proptosis goitre, thyroid nodules, bruit pretibial myxoedema onycholysis [nail separates from nailbed]
clinical signs of graves disease
- eyes - exopthalmus, opthalmoplegia
- pretibial myxoedema
- thyroid acropachy/ clubbing
what happens to the calcium in thyrotoxicosis
hypercalcaemia
causes of thyrotoxicosis
grave's toxic multinodular goitre [nodules secrete T3/T4] toxic adenoma [solitary nodule] ectopic thyroid tissue iodine [contaminated food, contrast] thyroiditis [post-infection] amiodarone, lithium postpartum
typical age and gender for graves
female 40-60
triggers of graves disease
stress
infection
childbirth
what other autoimmune diseases can grave’s be associated with
vitiligo
type 2 dm
addisons
treatment of thyrotoxicosis
propanolol carbimazole [titration] OR carbimazole + levothyroxine ['block-replace'] radioiodine thyroidectomy
rare but dangerous side effect of carbimazole.
how do you warn patients
agranulocytosis (low neutrophils) [can lead to sepsis]
warn to stop and get urgent FBC if signs of infection e.g. sore throat, fever, mouth ulcers
risks and consequences of thyroidectomy
risk of damage to recurrent laryngeal nerve
risk of damage to parathyroid gland
will become hypothyroid and need replacement therapy
complications of thyrotoxicosis
HF angina AF osteoporosis opthalmopathy gynaecomastia thyroid storm
what is a myxoedema coma +clinical features of myxoedema coma
severe hypothyroid state
hypothermia hyporeflexia bradycardia coma seizures
precipitants of myxoedema coma
infection
mi
stroke
trauma
Tx of myxoedema coma
O2 may need ventilation glucose T3 [liothyronine]/levothyroxine hydrocortisone if infection is suspected cause > ABx fluid/inotropes active warming
signs and Sx of thyrotoxic storm
pyrexia agitation confusion coma tachycardia AF D+V goitre/bruit acute abdo HF
precipitants of thyrotoxic storm
recent thyroid surgery radioiodine infection MI trauma
thyrotoxic storm Mx
fluids NGT if vomiting chlorpromazine [sedate] propanolol, digoxin [HR] carbimazole Lugol's solution [iodine blocks thyroid] hydrocortisone [prevents T4 >T3] infection > co-amox
when would you not use propanolol in thyrotoxic storm?
asthma/ poor cardiac output -> cardiac arrest
Mx of thyroid eye disease other than correcting the hyper/hypothyroidism
STOP SMOKING
IV methypred
surgical decompression
drops/glasses
causes of goitre. Diffuse, and nodular
diffuse: Grave’s, hashimoto’s thyroiditis, post infection, physiological
nodular: multinodular goitre, adenoma, carcinoma
Sx of hypothyroidism
lethargy low mood weight gain constipation menorrhagia hoarse voice reduced cognition/dementia myalgia/cramps/weakness
what is an insulinoma?
and Mx?
usually benign pancreatic islet cell tumour. Causes hypoglycaemia
excision
tests in insulinoma
serum glucose
plasma insulin
supressive test: give IV insulin + measure C-peptide {insulin should suppress but wont]
CT/MRI, endoscopic pancreatic ultrasound
Sx of DKA
drowsy vomiting abdo pain polyuria polydipsia lethargy anorexia ketotic breath coma deep breathing
triggers for DKA
poor compliance/wrong dose infection surgery MI pancreatitis chemo antipsychotics
3 criteria needed for a diagnosis of DKA
- acidaemia [ph]
- hyperglyc OR known DM
- ketonaemia or ^^^ketonuria
Ix in DKA
glucose [cap+lab] VBG/ABG for pH ketones U+Es [K+] ECG CXR [signs of infection] urine dip+MSU FBC culture osmolality
DKA Mx
ABCDE fluids [bolus or bag NS] insulin 50U in 50ml NS check BM + ketone hrly when glucose <14, start IV 10% glucose K+ LMWH consider catheter consider NGT
other causes of ketonuria [than DKA]
anyone after overnight fast
alcohol
complications of DKA
cerebral odema
thromboembolism
aspiration pneumonia
low K+/Mg/phos
actions of aldosterone on serum Na+, water, K+, bicarb
^ serum Na+ and water
reduced K+ and bicarb [loss in urine]
Mx of newly diagnosed addisons
hydrocortisone
fluid resus NaCl 0.9%
dextrose for hypoglyc
what effect does cortisol have on glycaemic state + how
hyperglycaemia
counter acts insulin
turns glycogen from muscles into glucose
what does secondary adrenal insufficiency mean?
pituitary dysfunction
what can cause chronic hyponatraemia
DIURETICS
e.g. bendroflumethiazide
in a patient with a pituitary prolactinoma, what specifically would causes a sudden severe headache?
apoplexy [haemorrhage]
what effect would a pituitary prolactinoma have on Na+, cortisol, and periods
Na+ low
cortisol low
amenorrhoea
causes of hypercalcaemia
hyperparathyroidism myeloma bone mets PTH secreting tumour excess vit D supplements sarcoidosis
give 4 Sx of hypercalcaemia
bone pain fractures renal stones depression abdo pain vomiting constipation weakness tired thirst polyuria weight loss confusion
Ix for hypercalc
PTH FBC U+E Mg2+, Ca2+, PO43- ALP [LFTs] ECG! CXR bone scan
ECG findings in hypercalcaemia
short QT
arrhythmias
Mx of hypercalcaemia
fluids
furosemide
IV bisphosphonates
complications of hypercalcaemia
pancreatitis renal stones arrhythmias renal failure osteopenia peptic ulcers
what is primary hyperparathyroidism and what would you see in PTH and Ca2+
^PTH from parathyroid
^PTH, ^Ca2+
what is secondary hyperparathyroidism and what would you see in PTH and Ca2+
^PTH caused by low Ca2+
Mx of primary hyperparathyroidism
correct hyperCa2+
parathyroidectomy
what is tertiary hyperparathyroidism and what disease is it commonly seen alongside
parathyroid adenoma due to prolonged hypoCa2+
end stage renal failure
5 cancers that metastasise to bone?
breast lung thyroid kidney prostate
why is growth hormone test not useful in acromegaly?
what diagnostic test would you use instead?
normal individuals secrete pulses of growth hormone throughout the day, which is difficult to differentiate from acromegaly.
Also GH is released in stress, puberty, sleep, preg.
OGTT - lack of normal suppression of GH with glucose load
most common cause of acromegaly
pituitary tumour secreting GH
[>95% of cases]
Pt with oligo or amenorrhoea, and ^testosterone. Likely diagnosis?
PCOS
differentials for ^prolactin
prolactinoma
pituitary stalk compression
dopamine antagonists, antipsychotics, oestrogens
hypothyroid
physiological: stress, pregnancy, breastfeeding
Sx of raised levels of prolactin
oligo/amenorrhoea infertility galactorrhoea weight gain low libido vaginal dryness ED pressure effects from prolactinoma osteoporosis [fracture]
Ix in high prolactin
pregnancy test
TFT
U+E [reduced excretion]
MRI pituitary if other causes ruled out
Mx of hyperprolactinaemia
bromocriptine [dopamine agonist]
drugs that cause hypercalcaemia
lithium
thiazide diuretics
vit D
commonest cause of hypercalc in an asymptomatic Pt?
hyperparathyroidism
is hypercalc an early or late sign in CA
late
common tumours ass. w/ hypercalc
multiple myeloma
breast
SCC
commonest cause of hirsutism
PCOS
female Pt with deepening of the voice, frontal balding, cliteromegaly suggests what diagnosis?
androgen secreting tumour
what blood result might contraindicate metformin
creat >14
how do insulin and sulfonylurea affect patient’s weight?
gain
give 5 signs of hypothyroidism
weight gain cold peripheries bradycardia dry skin thin hair slow reflexes ascites + oedema depression ataxia goitre neuropathy
causes of primary hypothyroidism
primary atrophic hypothyroidsim [autoimm] hashimoto's thyroiditis iodine deficiency [worldwide] post-thyroidectomy radioiodine Tx antithyroid drugs/ lithium/ amiod
what is primary atrophic hypothyroidism and which gender is more susceptible
Autoimmune. Lymphocytic infiltration. Atrophy. Female.
what is hashimoto’s thyroiditis and which gender is more susceptible
autoimmune. lymphocytic and plasma cell infiltration. goitre. female.
what is secondary hypothyroidism?
hypopituitarism [pituitary not producing enough TSH]
other diseases associated with hypothyroidsim
autoimmune: PA, T1DM, addisons turners/ downs CF primary biliary cholangitis ovarian hyperstimulation
pregnancy problems associated with hypothyroidism
eclampsia anaemia prem low birthweight stillbirth PPH
Mx hypothyroidism
levothyroxine
how does amiodarone affect the thyroid
hypo or hyper
iodine rich drug
iodine excess can toxicity > hypo
or hyper from destructive thyroiditis which releases ^hormones
what stimulates PTH release?
low Ca2+
what are the actions of PTH
^osteoclast activity = release Ca2+ and phosphate from bones
^ calcium and less phosphate reabsorption in the kidney
increased production of active 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D
overall increases calcium and reduces phosphate
causes of primary hyperparathyroidism
adenoma
hyperplasia of glands
parathyroid CA [<0.5%]
presentation of hyperparathyroidism
high calcium Sx: thirst, polyuria, tired, depressed, weakness, kidney stones, ulcers, pancreatitis, abdo pain
bone resorption Sx: pain, osteoporosis, fracture
HTN
Ix in hyperparathyroidism
Ca2+ phosphate PTH urine free calcium Alk phos XR, DEXA
advice for patient with mild hyperparathyroidsim and a type of drug to avoid prescribing
reduced calcium and vit D in the diet
drink plenty of fluids to avoid kidney stones
avoid thiazide diuretic
complications of removal of parathyroid adenoma or hyperplastic glands?
damage to recurrent laryngeal nerve = hoarseness
hypoparathyroidism
hypocalc - cramps, parasthesia, anxiety, seizure, wheeze, confusion, long QT
Mx of parathyroid adenoma or hyperplastic glands
excision
cinacalcet - increases PT cell sensitivity to Ca2+ which reduces PTH secretion
what is malignant hyperparathyroidism
some cancers produce parathyroid-related protein. [breast, squamous cell lung CA, renal cell carcinoma].
mimics PTH -> high calcium
causes of primary hypoparathyroidism
autoimmune gland failure
congenital [DiGeorge]
actions of vitamin D in relation to calcium
increases the level of calcium in the blood
BY…
increasing the uptake of calcium from the gut
increasing reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys
Mx of hypoparathyroidism
Calcium and cacitriol supplements or synthetic PTH subcut
causes of secondary hypoparathyroidism
radiation
surgery
hypomagnesaemia [need Mg to secrete PTH]
what are MEN syndromes?
multiple endocrine neoplasia
hormone producing tumours in multiple organs
outline the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis for steroid secretion
hypothalamus > CRF [corticotrophin-releasing factor]
pituitary > ACTH [adrenocorticotrophic hormone]
adrenal > cortisol + androgens (steroids)
what is cushings syndrome and what is the main cause
too much cortisol, lack of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal feedback mechanism, loss of circadian rhythm or cortisol release.
Exogenous steroids.
other causes of cushings sydrome, other than exogenous steroids
^ACTH due to…..
pituitary adenoma [cushings disease]
ectopic ACTH production
rarely ectopic CRF production
adrenal CA/adenoma
adrenal nodular hyperplasia
describe cushings DISEASE
Pituitary adenoma secretes ACTH. Leads to bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. Leads to high cortisol.
where does ectopic ACTH secretion usually come form?
small cell lung cancers
carcinoid tumours
cushings Sx
weight gain depression lethargy proximal weakness irregular periods hirsutism ED acne achilles tendon rupture
signs in cushings syndrome
central obesity moon face wasted limbs buffalo hump supraclavicular fat pads striae skin atrophy bruising HTN
Tx of cushings syndrome
stop exogenous steroids
cushings disease: pituitary adenoma excision + bilateral adrenalectomy
Cancer: adrenalactomy + radio + mitotane
ectopic: surgery / metyrapone
what is the risk of untreated cushings?
vascular mortality - incerased risk of arterial and venous clots
investigations in suspected cushings syndrome
dexamethasone suppression test
24h urinary free cortisol
Localization: serum ACTH adrenal MRI adrenal vein sampling CRH test [give CRH, measure cortisol] MRI pituitary
most common cause of addisons?
give 2 other causes
autoimmune
TB, adrenal mets, lymphoma, adrenal haemorrhage
what is the commonest cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency?
iatrogenic [long term steroids suppress pituitary, then withdrawn]
Sx of addisons
and signs of a critical deterioration
famously non-specific
lean tanned/ pigmented creases and oral mucosa tired tearful weakness anorexia dizzy myalgia/arthralgia abdo pain N, V + D/constipation
Critical: shock - low BP, tachycardia. Pyrexia, coma.
Ix in addisons
U+E, glucose, FBC short synacthen test [give ACTH, measure cortisol] ACTH autoantibodies (21-hydroxylase) renin + aldosterone CXR [TB] adrenla CT for cause
how does aldosterone affect Na+ and K+
Na+ sparing and K+ loss
so aldosterone increases plasma Na+ and reduces plasma K+
precipitants to addisonian crisis
infection
trauma
surgery
missed meds
Mx of addisonian crisis
check ECG, calcium gluconate for ^K+
fluid bolus
hydrocort
ABx if suspected infection
glucose if hypo
fludrocortisone
treat the cause
longterm Mx of addisons disease including non-medical
hydrocort fludrocort steroid bracelet/ steroid card double dose in febrile illness IM hydrocort for emergency
what is the commonest cause for hyperaldosteronism?
give 2 other causes
conn’s syndrome (aldosterone-secreting adenoma)
bilateral adrenocortical hyperplasia
adrenal carcinoma
(POOR RENAL PERFUSION > HIGH RENIN) renal artery stenosis CCF diuretics liver failure
Mx of conn’s
spironalactone pre-op
adrenalectomy
what is a phaeochromocytoma and where are they usually found
catecholamine-producing tumour
adrenal medulla
what is the classic triad of phaeochromocytoma
episodic headache
sweating
tachycardia
[+/- normal/high/low BP]
tests in phaeochromocytoma
24 hr urine metanephrines/metadrenaline
FBC [^WCC]
abdo CT/MRI
chromaffin-seeking isotope scan
phaeochromocytoma Tx
alpha blockade with phenoxybenzamine, then B blocker
then surgery
precipitants for hypertensive crisis in phaeochromocytoma
stress abdo palpation childbirth GA contrast
Sx, signs and ECG findings for hypertensive crisis in phaeochromocytoma
Sx: pulsing heachache, feels “about to die”
signs: pallor, HTN, pyrexia
ECG: signs of LVF, ST elevation, VT
Mx of for hypertensive crisis in phaeochromocytoma
alpha then beta blockade
Ix in hyperaldosteronism
U+E - low K+ low renin high aldosterone CT/MRI adrenal to localise cause adrenal vein sampling
causes of hirsutism
familial idiopathic PCOS ovarian CA adrenal hyperplasia cushings adrenal CA drugs [steroids]
Ix in hirsutism
US ovaries
bloods: testosterone, sex hormone binding globulin, LH/FSH, TSH, lipids
Mx of hirsutism
weight loss shaving/waxing/electorlysis/bleach eflornithine cream COCP metformin spironalactone clomifene (ovulation)
causes of gynaecomastia
hypogonadism liver cirrhosis hyperthyroid oestrogen secreting tumour [testicular] drugs: e.g. spironalactone, digoxin
male hypogonadism features
small testes low libido ED pubic hair loss loss of muscle bulk ^fat gynaecomastia osteoporosis low mood
Mx of gynaecomastia if unable to remove or stop the cause
consider testosterone and tamoxifen (oestrogen blocker)
causes of primary hypogonadism
trauma/torsion chemo/radio orchitis e.g. mumps renal failure liver cirrhosis excess alcohol Klinefelters syndrome [XXY]
causes of secondary hypogonadism
hypopituitarism [low FSH/LH] prolactinoma kallmans syndome systemic disease (DM, COPD, HIV) age
contraindications to giving hypogonadism pt testosterone. And what test might you want to monitor due to risk of giving testosterone?
previous prostate, liver or breast CA
hypercalcaemia
nephrosis
polycythaemia
monitor PSA
what are the levels of causes of hypopituitarism?
hypothalamus
pituitary stalk
pituitary
what tests might you do for hypopituitarism
LH, FSH, testosterone, oestradiol, TSH, T4, prolactin, IGF-1, Cortisol
U+E, Hb
synacthen test
MRI hypothalamus/ pituitary
Mx of hypopituitarism
hydrocort 1st then replace the other hormones: thyroxine oestrogen/testosterone somatotrophin [mimics GH] gonadotrophin therapy for fertility
treat the cause
features of local pressure of a pituitary tumour
headache
visual field defects [bilat temp hem]
cranial nerve palsy
diabetes insipidus
ix.s in pituitary tumour
MRI hormone levels assessment of visual fields short synacthen test GTT [acromeg]
Mx of pituitary tumour including post-Mx considerations
surgery
hormone replacement
radiotherapy
discuss fertility
acute onset headache, meningism, low GCS, visual field defect, opthalmoplegia, differentials?
pituitary apoplexy
SAH
Mx of pituitary apoplexy
hydrocortisone
cabergoline if prolactinoma
surgery
Sx of acromegaly
peripheral neuropathy low libido headache ^sweating snoring arthralgia backache rings/shoes don't fit change in facial appearance obstructive sleep apnoea
signs of acromegaly
hand and feet growth coarsening of facial features nose enlargement big supraorbital ridges macroglossia spaced teeth thick oily skin, skin tags puffy lips, eyelids, skin carpal tunnel signs skin darkening macrognathia/prognathism (acral [distal] + soft tissue overgrowth)
complications/ co-morbidities of acromegaly
HTN LVH/ CCF cardiomyopathy arrhythmias IHD stroke impaired glucose tolerance/ DM/ DKA colon CA sleep apnoea athritis
tests in acromegaly
high glucose high Ca2+ and phosphate OGTT MRI pituitary visual fields/acuity ECG/echo old photos
when is GH increased physiologically
stress
pregnancy
puberty
sleep
Mx of acromegaly
transsphenoidal surgery excision octreotide [somatostain analogue] pegvisomant [GH antagonist] bromocriptine [dopamine agonists] radiotherapy
what causes diabetes insipidus
reduced ADH secretion from post. pituitary (CRANIAL)
OR
impaired response of the kidneys to ADH (NEPHROTIC)
Sx of diabetes insipidus
POLYURIA
polydipsia
dehydration
hypernat Sx: lethargy, weakness, confusion, coma, fits, irritable
causes of cranial diabetes insipidus
idiopathic tumour congenital trauma surgical removal of pituitary autoimmune sarcoid haemorrhage meningoencephalitis
cause of nephrotic diabetes insipidus
inherited metabolic: low K+, high Ca2+ lithium CKD post-obstructive uropathy
tests in diabetes insipidus
U+E, Ca2+ glucose to exclude DM serum and urine osmolality water deprivation test MRI pituitary test anterior pituitary Fn. e.g. hormones, synacthen
differntials for diabetes insipidus
DM
lithium
diuretics
Tx of cranial diabetes insipidus
IV fluids to keep up with losses
desmopressin [synthetic ADH]
Tx of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
IV fluids to keep up with losses
treat cause
bendroflumethiazide
NSAIDs
what factors are needed for a diagnisis of SIADH?
in the abscence of what factors?
concentrated urine [^Na+ and osmolality]
hyponatraemia
low plasma osmolality
in the absence of diuretics, oedema, hypovolaemia
name 4 causes of SIADH
malignancy e.g. SCLC CNS e.g. stroke Chest e.g. pneumonia drugs e.g.opiates trauma major abdo/thoracic surgery
Tx of SIADH
treat cause
fluid restrict
salt
loop diuretic