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BIO 216 Final/Test 4 > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

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1
Q

What are steroids?

A

-A class of lipids
-Readily diffuse across the cell membrane
-the term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that duplicate the action for the naturally occurring steroids

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2
Q

What is the structure of steroids?

A

-Main feature of steroids is the fused ring system of 3 cyclohexanes and one cyclopentane
-large number of carbon-hydrogens(make steroids non-polar
-variety of functional groups may be atttached

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3
Q

Fungus steroids

A

-ergosterols: same function as cholesterol in animals
-required to build and maintain membranes regulates membrane fluidity over the range of physiological temperatures

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4
Q

Plant steroids

A

-phytosterols: structural component of cell membrane
-brassinosteroids: numerous roles: pollen tube formation, cell expansion and elongation, vascular differentiation

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5
Q

Define cholesterol and its classification

A

-essential structural component fo mammalian cell membranes: membrane permeability and fluidity
-technically classified as a modified steroid(or a sterol: steroid alcohol)

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6
Q

Cholesterol is an important component for what

A

-the manufacture of bile acids, steroid hormones and vitamin D

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7
Q

How is cholesterol made?

A

-Obtained from the diet, and is synthesized in the body from carbohydrates,proteins, fat

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8
Q

How does cholesterol help regulate membrane fluidity?

A

-disturbs the close packing of the phospholipids
-reduces permeability to some solutes

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9
Q

What type of steroid acts as a hormone?

A

-sterone

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10
Q

What five groups are steroid hormones grouped in and why?

A

-steroid hormones are grouped by the receptors to which they bind
-glucocorticoids(corticosteroids)
-mineralocorticoids(corticosteroids)
-androgens(sex steroid)
-estrogens( sex steroid)
-progestins(sex steroid)

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11
Q

Define hormones and what they control

A

-signaling molecules secreted by a cell that can alter activities of any cell with receptors for it
-typically produced by one tissue and transported through the bloodstream to another tissue to alter its physiological activity
-involved with the control of: development and function of gonads, metabolism, inflammation, salt and water balance in body fluids, molting in insects and crustaceans(ecdysone)

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12
Q

Steroid hormones are… soluble

A

-lipid soluble

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13
Q

Define sex steroids:

A

-subset of sex hormones that produce sex differences or support reproduction; includes androgens, estrogens, and progestins

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14
Q

Define corticosteroids

A

-most medical ‘steroid’ drugs are corticosteroids(prednisone)
-synthesized from cholesterol within the adrenal cortex

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15
Q

Define anabolic steroids

A

-class of steroids the interact with androgen receptors to increase muscle and bone synthesis
-there are natural and synthetic anabolic steroids
-popular language steroids usually refers to anabolic steroids

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16
Q

What do anabolic steroids do?

A

-increase production of actin and myosin proteins, can then be incorporated into existing myofibrils and add to muscular strength
-block the effects of stress hormone cortisol on muscle tissue(cortisol contributes to muscle breakdown, decreases amin acid uptake by muscle and inhibits protein synthesis
-affect the number of cells that develop into fat storage cells by favoring cellular differentiation into muscle cells instead

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17
Q

The endocrine system has over 60 major hormones that control

A

-growth(HGH: human growth hormone)
-reproduction (LH:lutenizing hormone)
-sexual development (testosterone)
-use and storage of energy

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18
Q

The endocrine system works in parallel with the … to control …… along with maintaining….

A

-nervous system
-growth and maturation
-homeostasis

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19
Q

Endocrine system includes ….

A

-four major types of cell signaling

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20
Q

Hormones and local regulators are …

A

-group into 4 classes based on their chemical structure

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21
Q

Hormones are regulated by

A

-feedback pathways

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22
Q

Define hormones

A

-substances secreted by cells that control the activities of cells elsewhere in the body
-only specific target cells respond to a specific hormone

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23
Q

Tropic hormone

A

-a hormone that regulates hormone secretion by another endocrine gland

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24
Q

Classical endocrine signaling

A

-endocrine glands secrete hormones over a distance (endocrine cell —-hormone—transported through blood—-target cell—response)

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25
Q

Neuroendocrine signaling

A

-neurosecretory neurons release neurohormones into the circulatory system(neurosecretory neuron—neurohormone—–transported through blood—-target cell–response)

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26
Q

Paracrine regulation

A

-cells release local regulators that diffuse through extracellular fluid to regulate nearby cells
(cell—local regulator—-diffuses through extracellular fluid—-target cell—response)

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27
Q

Autocrine regulation

A

-cells release local regulators that regulate the same cells that produced it
(cell with receptor protein—-local regulator—diffuses through extracellular fluid—- same cell target cell—response)

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28
Q

What are the four molecular classes of hormones and examples

A

-amines(epinephrine)
-peptides (growth factors PYY)
-steroid (aldosterone, cortisol)
-fatty acids: paracrine and autocrine regulation (prostaglandins)

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29
Q

What do prostagladins do?

A

-act on an array of cells and have a wide variety of effects:
-Cause constriction or dilation in vascular smooth muscle cells
-cause aggregation or disaggregation of platelets
-sensitize spinal neurons to pain
-decrease intraocular (eye) pressure
-regulate inflammatory mediation
-regulate calcium movement
-control cell growth

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30
Q

What do postagladins bind to, what type of mediators are they, and how are they produced

A

they bind to cell surface seven transmembrane receptors: G-protein-coupled receptors
-they are autocrine and paracrine type mediators
-they are produced by the oxidation of certain chemicals bey cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2)

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31
Q

Hormones typically are effective in very low concentrations in the body fluids because of …

A

-amplification

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32
Q

Amplification

A

-binding of a hormone to a receptor activates many proteins, which activates even more proteins

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33
Q

Hydrophilic receptors bind to

A

-surface receptors, activating second messenger pathways inside cells to elicit a cellular response
-example epinephrine

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34
Q

Hydrophobic hormones bind to receptors

A

-inside cells, activating or inhibiting genetic regulatory proteins
-example aldosterone

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35
Q

Target cells may respond to

A

-more than one hormone and different target cells may respond differently to the same hormone

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36
Q

List the major endocrine cells and glands of vertebrates

A

Pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex, testes and ovaries, islets of langerhans(pancreas)

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37
Q

What does the Pineal gland produce?

A

-produces melatonin hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and seasonal functions

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38
Q

What is the function of melatonin?

A

-interacts with they hypothalamus to set the body’s daily biorhythms
-in some vertebrates(fish,amphibians, reptiles), help animals change skin color

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39
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus

A

-produces tropic hormones (releasing and inhibiting hormones) that regulate secretions by the anterior pituitary gland

40
Q

What does the posterior pituitary gland store and release from the hypothalamus?

A

-ADH and oxytocin, which are stored and released by the posterior pituitary

41
Q

What is the basic function of ADH

A

-reduces urine volume

42
Q

What is the basic function of oxytocin

A

-uterine contraction during birth; breast milk release and bonding

43
Q

Define tropic hormone

A

-hormone that regulates hormone secretion by another endocrine gland

44
Q

What are some examples of hormones from the hypothalamus

A

-TRH: thyrotropin releasing hormone, CRH: corticotropin releasing hormone, GnRH: gonadotropinn releasing hormone, GHRH: growth hormone reeling hormone, Somatostatin (GHIH): growth hormone inhibiting hormone

45
Q

What hormones does the anterior pituitary secrete?

A

Polactin (PRL), Gonadotropins (FSH and LH), Thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Growth hormone (GH), Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), endorphins

46
Q

What does Prolactin (PRL) effect and produce and which pituitary gland does it come from?

A

-effect mammary glands, produces milk, anterior

47
Q

What does Gonadotropins (FSH and LH) effect and produce and which pituitary gland does it come from?

A

-testes and ovaries, produce gametes and hormones, anterior

48
Q

What does Thyroid stimulating hormone effect and produce and which pituitary gland does it come from?

A

-thyroid gland, increases rate of metabolism, anterior

49
Q

What does Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) effect and produce and which pituitary gland does it come from?

A

-Adrenal cortex, helps regulate fluid balance; helps body cope with stress, anterior

50
Q

What does the growth hormone (GH) effect and produce and which pituitary gland does it come from?

A

-muscle, bone and other tissues; promotes growth, anterior

51
Q

What is MSH?

A

-melanocyte stimulating hormone;produces a darkening of the skin, comes from anterior pituitary

52
Q

What are endorphins and where do they come from?

A

-Can be classified as either hormones or neurotransmitters that affect pain pathways in the PNS, inhibiting perception of pain

53
Q

What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary

A

-Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin), Oxytocin

54
Q

What does ADH do and where does it come from?

A

-regulates body water balance , posterior pituitary

55
Q

What does oxytocin do and where does it come from?

A

-childbirth: stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in the uterus
-trigger milk release from mammary glands

56
Q

Thyroid hormones stimulate…

A

-metabolism, development and maturation

57
Q

What does the thyroid secrete

A

-secretes thyroxine (T4), triodthyronine (T3), calcitonin (calcium homeostasis)

58
Q

What is hypothyroidism and what are they symptoms

A

-low thyroid output
-physically and mentally languid (sluggish)
-slow heart beat, weak pulse
-in children, leads ot cretinism; stunted growth, diminished intelligence

59
Q

What is hyperthyroidism and what are the symptoms

A

-overproduction of thyroid hormones
-irregular, rapid heart rate, irritability, insomnia, weight loss

60
Q

What is calcitonin

A

-a peptide hormone secreted by parafollicular cells(C-cells) in thyroid gland
-acts to reduce blood calcium by: stimulating calcium deposition in bon; inhibiting dissolution of calcium from bone

61
Q

Describe calcium homeostasis

A

-calcium release from bone is regulated by parathyroid hormone, PTH which stimulates calcium release from bone

62
Q

Define bone remodeling/metabolism

A

Is a lifelong process where mature bone tissue is removed from the skeleton (a process called bone resorption) and new bone tissue is formed (a process called ossification or new bone formation)

63
Q

Define bone resorption

A

-the process by which osteoclasts break down bone and release the minerals, resulting in a transfer of calcium from bone fluid to the bone

64
Q

New bone formation (ossification)

A
  • osteoblasts secrete new bone
65
Q

How does calcitonin lower blood Ca2+

A

-inhibits osteoclast activity in bones (which causes bone resorption)
-in the kidney it inhibits reabsorption of Ca2+ allowing it to be excreted in the urine

66
Q

Describe the action of parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

-stimulates bone cells to release Ca2+ into the blood
-stimulates the activation of vitamin D, which promotes Ca2+ absorption into the blood from food in the small intestine
-it enhances active reabsorption of calcium from the kidney

67
Q

In simple terms PTH does what to calcium blood levels and calcitonin does what to calcium blood levels?

A

-PTH: secreted by the parathyroid glands, acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood
-calcitonin: a hormone produced by the thyroid gland acts to decrease the calcium concentration in the blood

68
Q

.What does the adrenal medulla (inner) secrete?

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

69
Q

What does the adrenal cortex (outer) secrete?

A

-cortisol(a glucocorticoid), aldosterone(a mineralcorticoid), and adrogens

70
Q

Describe epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

-catecholamine(derived from tyrosin)
-secreted in response to stress, danger, fear, injury, infections (sympathetic fight or flight)

71
Q

What does epinephrine do?

A

prepares body for handling stress or physical activity
-heart rate increases
-break down of glycogen, fats, glucose, fatty acids or energy

72
Q

Describe what repeceptors epinephrine can bind to

A

-alpha, beta1 and beta 2
-when epinephrine binds alpha receptors on smooth muscle of blood vessels, vessels constrict, less blood flow to peripheral regions(such as the skin pales when frightend)
-bind to beta 1 on heart cells, contraction increases, blood flow increases
-bind to beta 2 on liver cells, glycogen breakdown to glucose

73
Q

Epinepherine constricts other blood vessels which lowers/raises blood pressure

A

raises

74
Q

Epinepherine increases/reduces blood flow to kidneys which increase/ reduces water loss

A

-reduce blood flow
-reduces water loss

75
Q

Epinepherine activates/inhibits smooth muscle contraction in intestine and increase/slows digestive system

A

-inhibits
-slows

76
Q

Norepinephrine has a different/similar affect on heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to heart compared to epinepherine

A

-similar

77
Q

What do glucocorticoid help maintain? Give an example of a glucorticoid

A

-helps maintain normal blood glucose levels
-stimulates glucose synthesis from gats and proteins; inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue
-stimulates the breakdown of fats and proteins when glucose is unavailible
-cortisol(anti-inflammatory stress hormone, inc blood pressure, inc. blood sugar and reduces immune responses.

78
Q

What do mineralocorticoids help regulate? Give an example of a mineralocorticoid

A

-Na+ balance and extracellular fluid volume
-aldosterone

79
Q

What are androgens

A

-a group of hormones that primarily stimulate or control the development and maintenance of male characteristics

80
Q

Describe the affects of aldosterone

A

-increases the reabsorption of sodium and water and releasing(secreting) potassium in the kidneys which increases blood volume and therefore blood pressure

81
Q

Describe renin

A

enzyme that converts a protein to angiotensis

82
Q

Describe angiotensin

A

-a peptide hormone that raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels and stimulating the release of aldosterone

83
Q

Describe the renin-angiotensin system

A

-When there is low blood volume the kidneys secrete renin
-renin stimulates the production of angiotensis 1(which is converted to angiotensin2 by ACE)
-angiotensis 2 causes blood vessels to constrict which increase blood pressure
-angiotensis stimulates the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

84
Q

What are the hormones of Islet of Langerhans cells of the pancreas?

A

-insulin and glucagon

85
Q

Describe the Islets of Langerhans

A

the area in which endocrine(hormone producing) cells of the pancreas are grouped. Often sphreical group of cells

86
Q

Describe diabetes mellitus and its symptoms

A

-due to low insulin production or action
-symptoms: frequent unrination, increase in thirst and increase appetite

87
Q

Why is frequent urination a symptom of diabetes

A

-poor insulin cells do not take up glucose which leads to high blood glucose levels which leads to the use of water to excrete this excess glucose which then leads to increased urination

88
Q

Why is an increase in thirst a symptom of diabetes

A

-need to replace excreted water

89
Q

Why is an increase in appetite a symptom of diabtetes

A

-low glucose levels in cell leads to proteins and fats being broken down for energy so they need to be replaced

90
Q

What is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabtetes

A

-type 1: pancreatic beta cells destroyed by an autoimmune reaction which leads to insufficient injections
-type 2: insulin is secreted but target cells have altered(or less) insulin receptors. Which leads to less reponsive insulin, the cells can’t properly take up glucose as an energy source

91
Q

What are the complication of diabetes

A

-protein breakdown weakens blood vessles: arms, legs, kidneys, retina
-poor circulation which leads to tissue degeneration which can lead to blindness, kidney failure, neuropathy

92
Q

What is diabetes insipidus

A

-condition characterized by excessive thirst and excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine with reduction of fluid intake having no effect
-several differnt types of DI each with a different cause

93
Q

What is the most common type of diabetes insipidus, give an example of another type

A

-neurogenic DI caused by a deficiency in ADH
-nephrogenic DI which is caused by an insensitivity of the kidneys to ADH

94
Q

What types of hormones do ovaries secrete

A

-estrogens and progestins

95
Q

What types of hormones do testes secrete

A

-androgens

BIO 216 Final/Test 4 (5 decks)

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