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ZOOL 403 > Emily's Final Review > Flashcards

Emily's Final Review Flashcards

1
Q

What are 8 synapomorphies in Amniota?

A

Amniotic egg with extraembryonic membranes, claws or nails at the end of digits, egg-tooth on the snout to facilitate hatching, complete loss of water-breathing larva, complete loss of lateral line system, internal fertilization by means of a penis, at least 2 sacral vertebrae, formation of the astragalus from the fusion of at least 3 previous tarsals.

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2
Q

What is the function of the amnion in a shelled egg?

A

Provides mechanical protection.

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3
Q

What is the function of the allantois in a shelled egg?

A

Used for respiration and nitrogenous waste storage.

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4
Q

What is the function of the chorion in a shelled egg?

A

Used for respiration and protection.

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5
Q

What is the function of the yolk sac in a shelled egg?

A

Yolk absorption, provides nutrients to the embryo.

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6
Q

What is the yolk an extension of?

A

Endoderm.

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7
Q

What are 3 things that mammals special?

A

Lactation, endothermy, food processing.

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8
Q

What is the difference between adducting and abducting?

A

Adducting - Bringing towards the midline; Abducting - Moving away from the midline.

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9
Q

What additional skull opening do amniote synapsids have?

A

Synapsid temporal opening.

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10
Q

Which muscle causes the jaw to move left and right?

A

Pterygoideus muscle.

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11
Q

What structure from fish is retained in amniotes?

A

Buccopharyngeal pump.

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12
Q

Which muscles appear in amniotes that help with inspiration and expiration?

A

Axial muscles.

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13
Q

Why can mammals breathe and run at the same time?

A

The mode of locomotion is more up and down, which forces air out of the lungs when the animal lands and then the diaphragm brings air in when the animal takes off from the ground.

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14
Q

What are the major differences between early synapsids and derived synapsids?

A

Fewer ribs (evolved diaphragm), tail reduced (no side-to-side motion), legs are parasagittal (not sprawled), shoulder girdle is less attached to vertebral column (shock absorption).

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15
Q

Which gill arches are lost in a hypothetical early amniote heart? Which are retained?

A

Arches 1, 2 and 5 lost. Arches 3 and 4 retained.

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16
Q

Which structure does gill arch 6 become in the hypothetical early amniote heart?

A

Conus arteriosus.

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17
Q

Which systemic artery is lost in mammals and which is lost in birds?

A

Mammals: Right is lost; Birds: Left is lost.

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18
Q

What structure is retained in Monotremes?

A

Sinus venosus.

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19
Q

What term describes the ankle structures of birds and dinosaurs?

A

Mesotarsal.

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20
Q

What term describes the ankle structure of mammals?

A

Crurotarsal.

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21
Q

What term describes how fish remove nitrogenous waste and what does it mean?

A

Amonnotelic - secrete ammonia.

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22
Q

What term describes how mammals remove nitrogenous waste and what does it mean?

A

Ureotelic - Secrete urea.

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23
Q

What term describes how sauropsids remove nitrogenous waste and what does it mean?

A

Uricotelic - Secrete uric acid.

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24
Q

What modification does a lizard kidney have?

A

Short tubular portion of the nephron - less water reabsorption.

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25
Q

How does ADH control urine concentration in a mammalian kidney?

A

When water needs to be conserved, more ADH will be released, causing aquaporin channels to be inserted into the membrane of the collecting duct and water will flow out of the urine and back into cells. Opposite is true when excess water needs to be removed.

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26
Q

Which bone in mammals is the dentary bone in fish homologous to?

A

Also the dentary bone.

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27
Q

What features evolved in mammalia?

A

Dentary-squamosal jaw articulation, diphyodont dentition, prismatic enamel, double-rooted molars, dorsoventral flexion of the backbone.

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28
Q

Which bone became the Incus?

A

The Quadrate.

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29
Q

Which bone became the Malleus?

A

The Articular.

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30
Q

What features evolved to help in chewing?

A

Occlusion, enlarged dentary, enlarged temporal fenestra, quadrate gets pulled upward into the ear (becomes incus).

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31
Q

What postcranial features evolved?

A

Loss of lumbar ribs, evolution of the diaphragm, vertebrae interlock restricting side-to-side movement, reduced number of phalanges.

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32
Q

Is an opposable hallux a derived or ancestral feature in mammals?

A

Ancestral feature.

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33
Q

Why is the Coracoid and clavicles reduced in mammals?

A

Light shoulder girdle, better for limb extension, more shock absorption.

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34
Q

What are 7 synapomorphies of mammals?

A

Hair, milk, single bone in lower jaw (dentary), double-rooted cheek teeth, three ear ossicles, prismatic tooth enamel, crurotarsal ankle, calcaneal heel.

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35
Q

What is NOT a synapomorphy in mammals?

A

Vivipary.

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36
Q

What is hair a derivative of?

A

Epidermal scales and they are made of keratin.

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37
Q

What is the dentary bone derived from?

A

Dermal ossification.

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38
Q

What is the purpose of prismatic tooth enamel?

A

Improves durability for chewing.

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39
Q

What does the calcaneus attach to and what is its purpose?

A

Attaches to the Achilles tendon and is used for greater force when pushing off.

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40
Q

What type of teeth do all mammals have?

A

Diphyodont teeth.

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41
Q

List 6 characteristics of modern mammals.

A

Endothermic and homeothermic, mammary glands, dentary-squamosal jaw joint, secondary palate present, three middle ear ossicles, lumbar ribs absent.

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42
Q

What is the purpose of the talonid structure on the molar?

A

To pulp food - better for eating vegetation.

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43
Q

What is a key innovation seen in mammals?

A

The development of specialized herbivory.

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44
Q

Why did diphyodont teeth evolve?

A

Lactation and diphyodont teeth coevolved, teeth erupt when the face becomes big enough, changes in maternal investment.

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45
Q

What are some differences between a Monotreme shoulder girdle and a Therian (Marsupial and Placental) shoulder girdle?

A

Monotremes: Clavicle and interclavicle present, no supraspinous/infraspinous fossa, no scapular spine.

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46
Q

Why do Therians lose the interclavicle?

A

Allows for more degrees of rotation and better shock absorption.

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47
Q

What does the supracoracoideus muscle do in Monotremes?

A

Pulls the forelimb forward.

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48
Q

What features change as mammals get larger?

A

Spine becomes more rigid, less limb bending (support weight), scapula becomes part of limb rotation.

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49
Q

Why did mammals initially lose trichromatic colour vision and why did primates reevolve it?

A

Lost it because mammals are ancestrally nocturnal. Reevolved it because primates are frugivores and being able to see brighter colours of fruit helped in gaining the most glucose for energy.

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50
Q

What are the 3 living lineages of mammals?

A

Monotremes, marsupials, placentals.

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51
Q

What is the structure of the male Monotreme reproductive system?

A

Penis is inside cloaca and can be everted; testes are inside the body wall.

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52
Q

What is the structure of the male Marsupial reproductive system?

A

Testes are in front of the penis outside of the body wall.

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53
Q

What is the structure of the male Placental reproductive system?

A

Testes are behind the penis and outside of the body wall; testes descend and loop vas deferens around ureters.

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54
Q

What is the structure of the female Monotreme reproductive system?

A

One ovary; cloacal opening.

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55
Q

What is the structure of the female Marsupial reproductive system?

A

Ureter splits the vagina into two; two uteri; pseudovaginal canal runs in between lateral vaginas.

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56
Q

What is the structure of the female Placental reproductive system?

A

One vagina; ureters run lateral to the uterus.

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57
Q

What is a choriovitelline placenta?

A

A yolk sac placenta.

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58
Q

What is a chorioallantoic placenta?

A

Placenta formed from the fusion of the chorion and the allantois.

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59
Q

What is the difference between Altricial and Precocial offspring?

A

Altricial: Offspring can’t take care of themselves (ancestral); Precocial: Offspring are able to walk right away after being born.

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60
Q

How does the shoulder girdle differ in newborn Marsupials vs in adult Marsupials?

A

Newborn has more cartilaginous elements. Interclavicle cartilage ossifies into the sternum in adults. Metacoracoid cartilage is reduced to the coracoid process in adults.

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61
Q

What mode of reproduction is seen in Monotremes, Marsupials and Placentals?

A

Monotremes: Oviparous. Marsupials: Viviparous. Placentals: Viviparous.

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62
Q

What is the length of the gestation period in Monotremes, Marsupials and Placentals?

A

Monotremes: None. Marsupials: Short. Placentals: Long.

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63
Q

What type of neonate is seen in Monotremes, Marsupials and Placentals?

A

Monotremes: Altricial. Marsupials: Altricial. Placentals: Altricial or precocial.

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64
Q

How long is the lactation period in Monotremes, Marsupials and Placentals?

A

Monotremes: Long. Marsupials: Really long. Placentals: Shorter.

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65
Q

What is the placenta type in Monotremes, Marsupials and Placentals?

A

Monotremes: N/A. Marsupials: Choriovitelline. Placentals: Chorioallantoic.

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66
Q

Is gestation or lactation cheaper?

A

Gestation is cheaper.

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67
Q

What special thing can kangaroos do?

A

They can enter diapause, which is where they hold a blastocyst until conditions are ideal for it to develop.

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68
Q

What type of milk will a big joey receive?

A

High fat, low protein.

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69
Q

What type of milk will a kangaroo neonate receive?

A

High protein, low fat.

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70
Q

Why do monotremes have a body temperature of around 32 degrees?

A

Conserves energy.

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71
Q

What occurred that separated Australidelphia from Ameridelphia?

A

Both were present in Gondwana and then the continent split, causing the two groups to undergo different evolutionary events.

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72
Q

List the skull differences between Marsupials and Placentals.

A

Marsupials: Flared nasal bones, Inflected angle to jaw, 3 premolars; 4 molars, 5 upper incisors and 4 lower incisors, Jugal forms portion of jaw glenoid. Placentals: Rectangular nasal bones, Noninflected angle to jaw, 4 premolars; 3 molars, 3 upper and lower incisors, Jugal ends before glenoid, Have an auditory bulla.

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73
Q

What is the only type of Marsupial that has a chorioallantoic placenta?

A

Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunni).

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74
Q

What is Wallace’s Line?

A

The line separating Australia’s marsupial dominated biomes from southeast Asia’s Placental dominated biomes.

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75
Q

What are 4 synapomorphies of Placentals?

A

Dental formula of 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 3/3. All teeth except the molars are replaced. Has a corpus callosum. Testes are caudal to the penis.

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76
Q

Which premolar is replaced in Marsupials?

A

3rd premolar.

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77
Q

How many cervical vertebrae do manatees have and how many are there normally?

A

Manatees have 6 cervical vertebrae and there are normally 7.

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78
Q

How can you tell an African elephant apart from an Asian elephant?

A

African elephants have much larger ears for increased thermoregulation (heat loss). Asian elephants have smaller ears.

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79
Q

What is the most diverse clade of mammals?

A

Glires - Rodentia.

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80
Q

What distinguishes Old World monkeys from New World monkeys?

A

Old world monkeys do not have prehensile tails and New World monkeys do.

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81
Q

What group is Cetacea within?

A

Artiodactyla.

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82
Q

What is unique about the limbs of hyenas?

A

The forelimbs are taller than the hindlimbs.

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83
Q

Which group of Ungulata has an even number of digits?

A

Artiodactyla.

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84
Q

Which group of Ungulata has an odd number of digits? What else do they have on their femur?

A

Perissodactyla. 3rd trochanter on femur for tendon attachment.

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85
Q

What kind of fermentation occurs in Perissodactyla?

A

Hind gut fermentation with symbiotic bacteria.

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86
Q

What kind of fermentation occurs in Artiodactyla?

A

Foregut fermentation (before small intestine).

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87
Q

What is baleen made of and what is its purpose?

A

It is made of keratin and is used for filter feeding krill.

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88
Q

Why are marine mammals large?

A

To reduce their SA:V ratio, as being smaller would lead to too much heat loss in the water. Also helps in reducing drag.

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89
Q

Where is most of the fat in marine mammals concentrated?

A

Concentrated as subcutaneous and visceral fat.

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90
Q

What type of teeth do marine mammals most commonly have?

A

Homodont dentition.

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91
Q

What are the 5 types of biomes?

A

Holarctic, Oriental, Neotropical, Ethiopian, Australian.

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92
Q

What event has occurred many times in mammals between marsupials and placentals?

A

Convergent evolution.

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93
Q

Give 3 examples of convergent evolution between marsupials and placentals.

A
  1. Gliders (flying squirrel and flying phalanger). 2. Fossorial herbivore (Ground hog and wombat). 3. Dog-like carnivore (Wolf and Thylacine).
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94
Q

What is the standard metabolic rate?

A

The minimum rate of O2 consumption for life -> temperature sensitive

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95
Q

What is the resting metabolic rate enhanced by?

A
  • Feeding
  • Digestion
  • Skeletal muscle activity
  • Shivering
  • Non-shivering thermogenesis
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96
Q

What does the hypothalamus do in thermoregulation?

A

Controls behavioural responses

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97
Q

What feature do some mammals have that allow them to control the temperature of the blood going to their brain?

A

Countercurrent heat exchanger in the turbinates of the nose

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98
Q

What is the best option for endotherms to maintain a stable body temperature in cold environments?

A

Increasing the conservation of heat rather than the production of it.

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99
Q

What strategy is best for marine mammals to retain heat and what is the best for terrestrial mammals?

A

Marine: Subcutaneous fat
Terrestrial: Fur

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100
Q

How does a countercurrent heat exchanger work?

A

Veins with cooler blood surround arteries in limbs and the arteries transfer heat to the veins. This allows more heat to be conserved in the extremities that can be returned to the core of the animal.

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101
Q

What are some strategies for reducing heat loss?

A
  • Avoidance
  • Burrows, dens, seeking warmer climates
  • Social thermoregulation
  • Facultative hypothermia (less than 100g)
  • Seasonal hypothermia
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102
Q

Why can’t large animals enter torpor?

A

The cost to arouse is too much and it would take too long. Not efficient.

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103
Q

What is the difference between daily torpor and deep torpor?

A

Daily torpor is used by small mammals who can enter torpor and arouse within the same day. Deep torpor is used by larger mammals to enter a more prolonged state of hibernation, but has a much higher cost.

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104
Q

What are some risks involved with torpor?

A
  • Being eaten by predators
  • Nitrogenous waste removal
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105
Q

Why do Baleen whales migrate from Mexico to Alaska?

A

Baleen whales migrate to Alaska for large patches of zooplankton and then return to Mexico during their calving season. This is because the neonates are born without blubber and would freeze if they were in cold waters.

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106
Q

Why do humans have sweet milk?

A

Helps with neural development

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107
Q

When is endothermy the most effective?

A

When the body temperature is greater than the ambient temperature

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108
Q

What are some strategies for living in very warm climates?

A
  • Being nocturnal
  • Going to water or mud
  • Relaxing homeostasis and letting the body temperature go up
  • Changing posture to reduce SA
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109
Q

What are some strategies used for water conservation?

A
  • Elongating the loops of Henle and allowing for more concentrated urine to be produced
  • Avoiding using evaporative cooling
  • Being active at night
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110
Q

How does endothermy relate to lactation and complex teeth?

A

More energy is needed from food for endothermy. This leads to more complex teeth for the breakdown of cell walls and lactation for neonates so they can acquire adult nutrients.

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111
Q

What is a Diapsid?

A

Two temporal fenestra

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112
Q

What occurs in the skull of a turtle?

A

Temporal fenestra is secondarily closed

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113
Q

What occurs in the skull of a lizard?

A

The lower temporal bar is lost

114
Q

What occurs in the skull of a snake?

A

The upper and lower temporal bars are lost

115
Q

What are 7 synapomorphies of Lepidosauria?

A
  • Skin shedding
  • Thyroid fenestra in pelvis
  • Paired male hemipenes
  • Fibula fits into a lateral recess on the femur at knee
  • Transverse cloaca
  • Mesotarsal ankle joint with fused astragalocalcaneum
  • Hooked metatarsal 5
116
Q

What is a Sphenodon and what does its skull look like?

A

A Tuatara and it has an upper and lower temporal bar

117
Q

Is Squamata a monophyletic or a paraphyletic group?

A

Monophyletic

118
Q

Are lizards monophyletic or paraphyletic?

A

Paraphyletic

119
Q

Are Serpentes monophyletic or paraphyletic?

A

Monophyletic

120
Q

What feature allows the quadrate to swing open for a wider gape?

A

Loss of the lower temporal bar

121
Q

What feature allows snakes to ‘walk’ their jaws over their prey?

A

Loss of the upper temporal bar

122
Q

What is an Amphisbaenian and what shape is their skull? Why?

A

A blind snake (not a snake though). It has a cone-shaped skull useful for burrowing.

123
Q

What are some characteristics of blind skinks?

A
  • No legs
  • Fused cone-shaped skull
  • Eyes reduced and covered in scales
  • Slender bodies
  • Insectivores
  • No ears
124
Q

What group are the Pygopodidae within?

A

Gekkota

125
Q

What physiological features do sit-and-wait predators typically have?

A
  • White muscle for anaerobic sprint activity
  • Small heart size
  • Low hematocrit
  • Low energy expenditure/intake
  • Limited endurance
  • Stocky body and short tail
126
Q

What type of physiological features do active foragers typically have?

A
  • Red muscle for aerobic activity
  • Large heart size
  • High hematocrit
  • High energy expenditure/intake
  • High endurance
  • Elongated body with long tail
127
Q

How does the tongue of a Chameleon function?

A

Ballistic tongue that shoots out and retractor muscle (glossohyal) pulls it back in

128
Q

What is the vomeronasal system used for in Squamates?

A

Used for prey detection. In mammals it is used for pheromone detection.

129
Q

What is gustation?

A

Taste buds on the lingual and oral surfaces

130
Q

What is the function of pit organs and what type of predators are they found in?

A

Pit organs detect infrared signals from prey. Used in sit-and-wait predators

131
Q

What is caudal autotomy and how does it work?

A

The ability to lose the tail when attacked by a predator in order to escape. Fracture planes and muscle bundles separate autotomy planes and contraction breaks the muscle and blocks the blood vessels. The tail falls off and twitches to confuse the predator and will grow back as fatty tissue.

132
Q

What are the functions of crypsis?

A
  • Avoid detection from predators
  • Send signals to others
  • Hiding as a sit-and-wait predator to ambush prey
133
Q

What is deterrance?

A

An anti-predator mechanism that is used to threaten predators. Can be warning colouration, spines on body/tail, poison, etc.

134
Q

Which glands secrete pheromones in lizards?

A

Femoral glands

135
Q

What are some ways in which lizards can communicate?

A
  • Crypsis/colour change
  • Vocalizations
  • Pheromones
  • Coloured structures (dewlap)
136
Q

What is the most common form of reproduction in snakes and lizards?

A

Viviparity

137
Q

Why did some species of Squamates evolve ovovivipary?

A

Allows the female to transmit more heat to the embryo

138
Q

What is parthenogenesis?

A

Asexual reproduction where the eggs can develop without fertilization

139
Q

How is body temperature regulated in Squamates?

A

Behavioural (ex. basking, burrowing)

140
Q

When do Squamates usually seek heat and why?

A

After feeding because it helps in digestion and assimilation

141
Q

Where would a small lizard most likely be found?

A

In cleared areas with little shade. Their small SA:V ratio causes them to lose heat more rapidly and therefore they must spend more time in sunlight

142
Q

What are ecomorphs? What group of lizards is this seen in?

A

Species of different phyletic origin with similar morphological adaptations to similar niches. Seen in Anolis.

143
Q

How can you tell the difference between a legless lizard and a snake?

A
  • Lizards have long tails and short trunks
  • Snakes have short tails and long trunks
  • Lizards have smaller heads and eat smaller prey
  • Snakes have a single lung
144
Q

What adaptations do sea snakes have?

A
  • Laterally compressed body
  • Nasal valves to prevent water from entering
  • No ventral scales
145
Q

What are the 4 types of locomotion seen in snakes?

A
  • Lateral undulation
  • Concertina locomotion (inchworm; burrowing snakes)
  • Recto-linear locomotion
  • Side winding
146
Q

Which bones in the snake skull are mobile?

A
  • Maxilla
  • Dentary
  • Pterygoid
  • Articular
  • Quadrate
  • Supratemporal
147
Q

Why do snakes have teeth that are hooked backwards?

A

So that they can hold onto their prey

148
Q

How can snakes walk their jaws over prey? List the steps

A
  • Mandibular and Pterygoid teeth of left side anchored
  • Head rotated to the left to advance right jaw. Mandible protracted
  • Right jaw advances
  • Mandibular and Pterygoid teeth of right side anchored. Left teeth released. Head begins to rotate right.
149
Q

What are the two predation styles of snakes?

A
  • Constriction
  • Venom
150
Q

List some characteristics of snakes that use constriction.

A
  • Short trunk and short vertebrae for strength
  • Sit and wait predators - can’t locomote fast
  • Hunt mammalian prey since they need O2 more readily
151
Q

List some characteristics of snakes that use venom.

A
  • Fast moving
  • Live in grasslands
  • Evolved Duvernoy’s gland for venom
  • Evolved more sophisticated olfaction
  • Have plicidentine - venom channel
152
Q

What nerve is inside the pit organ that detects heat?

A

Trigeminal nerve

153
Q

What kind of components are usually in snake venom?

A
  • Proteinases
  • Anticoagulants
  • Neurotoxins (sometimes)
  • Phospholipases
  • Phosphatases
154
Q

What are 5 synapomorphies of Testudines?

A
  • Elements of axial skeleton fused to dermal plates dorsally to form the carapace
  • Carapace fused to bony ventral plates of plastron
  • Carapace and plastron covered in keratinous plates (scutes) whose boundaries are not the same as the osteoderms
  • Limb girdles internal to rib cage
  • Loss of teeth, have a keratinous beak
155
Q

Why don’t the boundaries of the dermal bone line up with the boundaries of the scutes in turtle shells?

A

Prevents points of weakness that would allow the shell to break easily

156
Q

What are the ribs fused to in turtles?

A

The costal plates

157
Q

During development, what occurs that causes the ribs to grow out straight over the scapula in turtles?

A

Shh signals in the Carapacial ridge cause the ribs to grow past the limb girdles and the muscles then fold over

158
Q

What is the difference seen in Cryptodira and Pleurodira?

A
  • Cryptodira vertically folds the neck into the shell
  • Pleurodira horizontally folds the neck into the shell
159
Q

Are Pleurodira aquatic or terrestrial? Where are they found?

A

Aquatic. Only found in Gondwanan continents

160
Q

Where is the trochlear process from in Cryptodira?

A

From the optic capsule

161
Q

Where is the trochlear process from in Pleurodira?

A

From the lateral process of the pterygoid

162
Q

How does locomotion differ in terrestrial turtles vs in aquatic turtles?

A

Terrestrial turtles have a sprawled posture and have synchronous movement of diagonal limb pairs. Aquatic turtles use alternating hind limb thrusts and can alter foot area depending on stage of thrust.

163
Q

What do sea turtles use their forelimbs and hindlimbs for?

A

Forelimbs - propulsion in a figure 8
Hindlimbs - steering

164
Q

How do turtles inhale?

A

-Contract abdominal oblique and serratus
-Abdominals pull down and back on the posterior limiting membrane
-Expands abdominal cavity to create a negative pressure and draw air in

165
Q

How do turtles exhale?

A

-Pectoralis pulls shoulder girdle back
-Viscera bulges and pushes on lungs
-Abdominal oblique and serratus relax, moving the posterior limiting membrane forward
-All pushes on cavity and air gets forced out of lungs

166
Q

What is the lung attached to in turtles?

A

The viscera and the shell

167
Q

What is pharyngeal gas exchange?

A

Gas exchange that occurs through the blood vessels in the pharynx when water is brought in through the mouth. Seen in soft-shelled turtles when they are buried up to their head in mud

167
Q

How do leatherback turtles maintain a higher body temperature?

A

Countercurrent heat exchangers in their front flippers and green fat as hatchlings

168
Q

What factors affect the sex ratio in turtles?

A

-Temperature
-Humidity
-[CO2] and [O2}

168
Q

What kind of reproduction do turtles have?

A

Oviparity

168
Q

Why do turtles use intracardiac shunting?

A

They can bypass the lungs when diving so that air bubbles don’t build up which would cause the Bends. It is also used in thermoregulation to shunt blood to the periphery to deposit heat there instead of the lungs where it would be lost.

168
Q

How can turtles shunt?

A

The musculature in the pulmonary vein constricts and reduces or stops blood from moving to the lungs and all the blood goes to the rest of the body.

169
Q

Why is nest emergence synchronized in turtles?

A

To avoid predation as it’s harder to get all of the hatchlings as opposed to just one at a time

170
Q

What is Type 1A sex determination?

A

Females are at high temperatures; males at low temperatures

171
Q

Which side of the femur is the 4th trochanter located and what does it do?

A

Located on the medial side and helps to retract the femur

171
Q

What is Type 2 sex determination?

A

Females at high and low temperatures; males at intermediate temperatures

171
Q

What is Type 1B sex determination?

A

Females at low temperatures; males at high temperatures

172
Q

How do turtles navigate?

A

Use magnetic fields and currents

173
Q

What are 5 synapomorphies of Archosauria?

A

-Antorbital fenestra
-Mandibular fenestra
-Thecodont teeth (tooth root in jaw)
-Double row of osteoderms along vertebral column
-Fourth trochanter on femur (muscle attachment to tail)

174
Q

What are the limbs used for in swimming?

A

Steering - no propulsion

174
Q

What are the 3 clades within Crocodylia?

A

-Crocodylidae
-Alligatoridae
-Gavialidae

175
Q

What kind of ankle do crocodiles have?

A

Crurotarsal

176
Q

What allows crocodylians to breathe with their nostrils and eyes above the water?

A

A secondary palate

177
Q

What kind of respiration do crocodilians use?

A

Cuirassal breathing

178
Q

Explain cuirassal breathing.

A

-Diaphragmatic contracts and pulls the liver back
-Liver pulls lungs back and creates a negative pressure
-Air is drawn in
-Stiff ventral plate
-Allows for easier breathing while locomoting

178
Q

What is the structure that allows crocodiles to shunt?

A

Foramen of Panizza - connects right and left systemic arteries

179
Q

When do crocodiles use shunting and how do they do it?

A

-Use it when they are holding their breath underwater
-The cogwheel valve in the pulmonary artery contracts and prevents blood from moving through
-Blood is then redirected through the Foramen of Panizza where it goes through both systemic arteries and flows to body

180
Q

How does crocodilian sex determination work? What type is it?

A

Temperature dependent sex determination where males are at high temperatures and females are at low temperatures. This is Type 1B.

180
Q

How do crocodiles communicate?

A

Through audible vocalizations and subsonic vibrations

180
Q

Why do crocodiles send deoxygenated blood to their gut?

A

It aids in digestion. The low [O2] and high [CO2} causes the blood to be more acidic, which helps break down tissues

181
Q

What are 4 synapomorphies of Aves? What is NOT a synapomorphy?

A

-Laterally oriented glenoid fossa on the scapula
-Feathers modified for flight
-A short tail (23 or fewer caudal vertebrae)
-A reversed hallux
-Feathers are NOT a synapomorphy

182
Q

What is the most diverse group of tetrapods?

A

Aves

182
Q

What 2 groups is Aves divided into?

A

-Palaeognathae (old jaws)
-Neognathae (new jaws)

183
Q

What are feathers?

A

A keratin outgrowth that is likely a highly derived form of a scale

184
Q

What are the 4 basic properties of an airfoil?

A

-Thrust
-Weight
-Lift
-Drag

184
Q

How do feathers connect?

A

The proximal barbules hook onto the distal barbules of the next feather

185
Q

What is stalling and when does it occur?

A

Turbulence generated behind the wing where lift cannot overcome gravity. Occurs when the angle of the airfoil is too much

185
Q

How does increasing the angle of the wing generate lift?

A

Air will move faster over top, which generates a pressure difference and creates lift. Low pressure air will be on top of the wing and high pressure air will be underneath. It also minimizes the effect of drag

186
Q

Which part of the wing generates lift and which part generates thrust and direction?

A

-Inner wing (secondary feathers) generate lift
-Outer wing (primary feathers) generate thrust and direction

186
Q

How can birds overcome stalling?

A

By slotting the alula, which forces air in between and reduces the effect of stalling

186
Q

Why do birds fly in a V formation?

A

Flying birds create vortices behind them, so other birds will position themselves behind another bird to take advantage of this and use the air vortex as lift, which saves them energy

186
Q

What happens when the alula is moved out?

A

It creates vortices that stabilize airflow at low speeds

187
Q

What is the purpose of slits between the feathers?

A

Reduces turbulence

187
Q

Why do birds have a ventral supracoracoideus?

A

It lowers their center of mass

188
Q

Which tendon connects the supracoracoideus muscle to the humerus?

A

Supracoracoideus tendon

188
Q

What is wing loading?

A

The ratio of a birds weight to its wing area

189
Q

Do smaller birds have small or large wing loading? How does this affect flying?

A

Small birds usually have smaller wing loading. This results in slower flight, lower stalling speed, and easy take-off and landings

190
Q

What type of wings have a low aspect ratio?

A

-Elliptical
-Passive soaring

190
Q

What is the aspect ratio?

A

It is the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area.

190
Q

What type of wings have high aspect ratios?

A

-Active soaring
-High speed
-Hovering
Wings that are long and narrow

191
Q

What are the 2 requirements for soaring?

A

-Low wing loading
-Large size

192
Q

What are the 2 types of soaring?

A

-Static (passive) soaring - vertically moving air
-Dynamic (active) soaring - horizontally moving air

192
Q

How does flapping flight work in small birds?

A

-Lift and thrust are generated on the downstroke
-Upstroke is only for recovery and feathers are separated so wing is not a foil

193
Q

What 2 currents are used in passive soaring?

A

-Obstruction currents (cliffs)
-Thermal currents (warm spots)

193
Q

How is dynamic soaring used?

A

-Air at the surface of water is slowed down due to friction
-The bird can climb up the gradient of air speed and glide back down

194
Q

What is the most energetically expensive form of flight?

A

True hovering (hummingbirds)

194
Q

How does flapping flight work in large birds?

A

-Downstroke is the same and generates lift and thrust
-During upstroke, the humerus is rotated and the wing moves in a figure 8 pattern
-This generates lift and thrust on the upstroke as well

195
Q

Why do some birds migrate?

A

To follow good conditions for breeding. Warm weather helps with egg incubation and seasonality of food.

195
Q

How is a hummingbirds wing specialized?

A

-It has reduced secondary feathers
-No alula
-Uses a very rapid figure 8 to always be generating lift

196
Q

How can birds tell when it is time to migrate?

A

-Day length
-Likely an internal clock system

196
Q

What adaptations do penguins have?

A

-Bones that are more dense and spongy
-Feathers are modified and tightly packed together
-Wings are smaller and used as flippers to swim

197
Q

What foot position do climbing birds typically have?

A

Zygodactyl

198
Q

Why are most perching birds unable to walk and must hop?

A

Foot locking mechanism that allows the foot to be gripped when the tendons are relaxed makes it impossible to walk

199
Q

What toe arrangement do diving birds typically have?

A

Syndactyl

199
Q

What is the ancestral toe arrangement?

A

Anisodactyl

200
Q

What are feathers homologous with in reptiles and mammals?

A

Reptiles: Scales
Mammals: Hair

200
Q

What toe arrangement do running birds typically have?

A

Didactyl

201
Q

What 3 types of toe webbing can be seen in swimming birds?

A

-Palmate
-Totipalmate
-Lobate

202
Q

Are feathers continuously growing?

A

No, they are dead when fully grown and cannot repair themselves

202
Q

What type of keratin is used in feathers and what type of cells is it produced by?

A

Beta-keratin. Produced by epidermal cells

203
Q

What is the structure called that runs down the center of a contour feather?

A

Rachis

204
Q

Where does the blood vessel enter in a contour feather?

A

Through the lower umbilicus and runs through the calamus

204
Q

What are the 5 types of feathers?

A

-Filoplume
-Down feather
-Semiplume
-Bristle
-Contour (vaned)

205
Q

How do feathers develop?

A

-Feather papillae from the dermis grow out and form a cone which protects the feather as is develops inside. The cone then disintegrates and the feather becomes exposed

205
Q

What is an aftershaft feather?

A

A secondary feather that grows from the base of a contour feather. May be an ancestral feature.

206
Q

What are powder down feathers?

A

-A specialized patch of feathers that grow continuously and the barbules disintegrate to form a powder that the bird distributes all over itself to become waterproof

206
Q

Why do peacocks have so many caudal feathers?

A

Sexual selection

207
Q

What is molting?

A

When all feathers are shed at the same time so that they grow back evenly and organized. Papillae are activated and push feathers out

208
Q

Why does molting occur?

A

-Replace worn/damaged feathers
-Change insulation properties
-Change colouration for breeding

208
Q

Which pigment produces blacks and browns?

A

Melanin (chemical)

209
Q

Which pigment produces reds, pinks, oranges, and yellows? How is it acquired?

A

Carotenoids. Must be acquired through diet. Related to vitamin A

209
Q

Which pigment produces greens, pinks and reds?

A

Porphyrin (nitrogenous)

209
Q

What is the only type of bird that has green colouration from porphyrin alone?

A

Fischer’s Turaco (Turaco fischeri)

210
Q

Where are the pigment granules located?

A

Within the keratin complex

210
Q

How is the blackest black produced?

A

The shape of the barbules is more ruffled and uneven, causing light to bounce around and can’t escape, which is seen as very black. STRUCTURAL

210
Q

How is white colouration produced?

A

Random air cavities within the barbule cause light to be bounced and wavelengths scatter, which is perceived as white
-STRUCTURAL

210
Q

How is blue colouration produced?

A

Particular air bubble arrangement within the keratin complex that scatters all wavelengths except for blue. Known as Tyndall scattering.

210
Q

How is most green colouration produced?

A

Blue structure with yellow pigment on top

210
Q

Which melanin produces brown-black and which produces reddish-yellow?

A

-Eumelanin produces brown-black
-Pheomelanin produces reddish-yellow

210
Q

How is iridescence produced?

A

-Melanin is arranged in rows
-Some light is absorbed by the melanin and the rest bounces out
-Colour that is perceived depends on the angle being viewed

210
Q

What type of colour vision do birds have?

A

Tetrachromatic (can see UV spectrum and RGB)

211
Q

What are 3 ways birds can change colour?

A

-Molting
-Fading and bleaching of feathers
-Wear and abrasion (preening)

211
Q

What is preening?

A

The process of cleaning and maintaining feathers

211
Q

Which gland secretes oil that can be spread over feathers during preening?

A

Uropygial gland

211
Q

How does a woodpecker extend its tongue?

A

Circular muscles that enclose the hyoid bones contract, which pushes the bones forward and causes the tongue to project out.

211
Q

What is anting?

A

Allowing ants to crawl into plumage. Formic acid from ants may help inhibit bacterial and fungal infections. Can be active or passive.

211
Q

What are the elongated hyoid bones in woodpeckers homologous with in fish?

A

Hyoid arch

212
Q

What is the function of a tomial tooth?

A

To sever the spinal chords of prey

212
Q

What type of sex determination do birds have and which are males and which are females? Which is the default?

A

Chromosomal sex determination
-ZZ -> Male (default)
-ZW -> Female

213
Q

What 4 types of mating are seen in birds?

A

-Monogamy (1 male and 1 female)
-Polygyny (1 male to many females)
-Polyandry (many males to 1 female)
-Promiscuity (both sexes mate with many different partners)

214
Q

-Monogamy (1 male and 1 female)
-Polygyny (1 male to many females)
-Polyandry (many males to 1 female)
-Promiscuity (both sexes mate with many different partners)

A

One male and one female form a pair bond and cooperatively raise offspring. Usually form a new bond each year, but some species mate for life

215
Q

What is lekking?

A

Males gather to display and the females choose a mate
-can be promiscuous or polygynous

216
Q

What is cooperative breeding?

A

When more than 2 birds take care of offspring
-can be mature non-breeding adults
-can be multiple pairs of parents
-eggs are usually all laid in one communal nest

216
Q

What types of species is polyandry most commonly found in?

A

Species with reversed sexual dimorphism
-Females compete and parental care is by the males

217
Q

How does food processing work in birds?

A

-Esophagus has an out-pocketing called the crop that stores food
-The proventriculus has digestive enzymes that break the food down
-The gizzard is muscular and further breaks down the food
-Absorption occurs in the small intestine and the large intestine

218
Q

What is the only type of bird that uses foregut fermentation?

A

Hoatzin

218
Q

How do owls create pellets?

A

They use their gizzard to compact the undigestible material into the pellet

219
Q

What allows birds to have kinetic skulls?

A

The quadrate joint

220
Q

Which group of birds has the most complex vocalizations?

A

Passeriformes

220
Q

What are vocalizations used for?

A

-Mating
-Warnings (predation)
-Territorial

220
Q

How do specific bird songs evolve?

A

They evolve geographically - not genetic

221
Q

What effects do humans have on birds?

A

-Road/city noises
-Bird feeders
-Outdoor cats
-Window mortality
-Some pesticides

221
Q

Why are all birds oviparous?

A

Because bird body temperature ranges from 40-42 degrees and optimal temperature for eggs is 37 degrees. Staying in the mothers body would be too warm

222
Q

What is the eggshell made of?

A

Calcium carbonate

223
Q

How is the shell formed?

A

Mammillary bodies attached to the outer shell membrane secrete calcium carbonate that crystallizes and moves around and up

224
Q

How does the developing fetus get calcium?

A

Calcium is transferred out of the shell and into the emrbyo, which causes the shell to thin out and makes it easier for hatching

224
Q

What hormone is responsible for developing a female from the default male?

A

Estrogen

224
Q

What hormone is generated that causes birds to begin brooding?

A

Prolactin

225
Q

Are bird offspring altricial or precocial?

A

Can be either depending on species

225
Q

Why do some brooding birds lose feathers on their ventral side?

A

Develops more blood vessels and exposes them so that more heat can be transferred to the eggs.

226
Q

Do large birds or small birds typically have longer periods of parental care?

A

Large birds

ZOOL 403 (6 decks)

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