ELM 21 Neurotechniques

Question 1

Question: What is trepanation in the context of brain surgery?

Answer 1

Answer: Trepanation involves boring holes in the skull. It is one of the oldest known surgical procedures, with evidence dating back thousands of years. Its purpose in ancient times remains unclear but could have been for healing or ritualistic reasons.

Question 2

Question: What is stereotaxic surgery used for in brain research?

Answer 2

Answer: Stereotaxic surgery is used to produce precise brain lesions or insert electrodes into specific areas of the brain. This technique relies on a stereotaxic atlas to target the desired brain region accurately.

Question 3

Question: Who was Phineas Gage, and why is he significant in the history of neuroscience?

Answer 3

Answer: Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a traumatic brain injury when an iron rod pierced through his skull. His case was the first to suggest a link between brain trauma and personality change, leading to significant insights into the functions of different brain regions.

Question 4

Question: What contribution did Wilder Penfield make to neuroscience?

Answer 4

Answer: Wilder Penfield used electrical brain stimulation on awake patients to map the functions of different areas of the cortex. His work helped create functional maps of the brain, including the famous “motor homunculus,” which represents the body’s motor functions in relation to the brain.

Question 5

Question: What is experimental ablation in the context of neuroscience research?

Answer 5

Answer: Experimental ablation involves lesioning or destroying a specific part of the brain to study its function. This technique helps researchers understand the role of different brain regions in behavior and cognitive functions.

Question 6

Question: Describe the goldfish shoaling experiment and its findings.

Answer 6

Answer: In the goldfish shoaling experiment, researchers observed the behavior of goldfish with and without lesions in the telencephalon, a region of the brain. Fish with ablated telencephalon did not swim with the others, indicating that this brain region might be involved in social behavior or coordination within the shoal.

Question 7

What is Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?

Answer 7

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) involves the implantation of electrodes within certain brain areas. These electrodes are connected to a pacemaker-like device placed under the skin in the upper chest.

Question 8

How is the amount of stimulation controlled in Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?

Answer 8

The amount of stimulation in DBS is controlled by a pacemaker-like device implanted under the skin in the upper chest. This device is connected via wires that travel under the skin to the electrodes implanted in the brain.

Question 9

What is the impact of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) on normal/healthy tissue?

Answer 9

DBS does not destroy normal or healthy tissue. Instead, it produces electrical impulses that regulate abnormal impulses and affect certain cells and chemicals within the brain.

Question 10

What neurological conditions can be treated using Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?

Answer 10

DBS can treat a range of neurological conditions, including tremors in Parkinson’s disease, dystonia, essential tremor, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and epilepsy.

Question 11

What are some potential therapeutic mechanisms of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?

Answer 11

While the specific therapeutic mechanisms of DBS are unclear, it is known to help the brain release more ATP, which activates adenosine A1 receptors, dampening excitatory transmission.

Question 12

What are some common side effects associated with Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?

Answer 12

Side effects of DBS surgery/stimulation may include mood changes, speech problems (such as palilalia), and vision problems.

Question 13

What is Computerized Tomography (CT)?

Answer 13

CT combines a series of X-ray images taken from different angles and uses a computer to create cross-sectional images.

Question 14

What are the applications of Computerized Tomography (CT)?

Answer 14

CT is used to quickly examine people with internal injuries from accidents or trauma. It is also used to localize tumors, infections, blood clots, guide procedures like biopsy or radiation therapy, and detect and monitor diseases such as cancer.

Question 15

What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?

Answer 15

PET uses a radioactive drug to show brain activity, which can be injected, swallowed, or inhaled.

Question 16

What are the uses of Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?

Answer 16

PET is useful for revealing and evaluating tumors and other brain disorders like Alzheimer’s disease and seizures. It can also be combined with MRI and CT scans.

Question 17

What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?

Answer 17

MRI uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain and spinal cord.

Question 18

What are the applications of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?

Answer 18

MRI is the most frequently used imaging test of the brain and spinal cord. It can diagnose conditions such as aneurysms, eye or ear disorders, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injuries, stroke, tumors, and brain injury from trauma.

Question 19

What is Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)?

Answer 19

fMRI measures metabolic changes within the brain and can examine brain anatomy in people being considered for brain surgery.

Question 20

What are the uses of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)?

Answer 20

fMRI can assess damage from head injury or disorders like Alzheimer’s disease. It has also revealed that parts of the visual cortex are recruited in language processing in blind people.

Question 21

What is gene therapy?

Answer 21

Gene therapy involves altering genes inside the body’s cells to treat or stop a disease, instead of using drugs or surgery.

Question 22

What are the goals of gene therapy?

Answer 22

The goals of gene therapy include replacing mutated genes with healthy copies, inactivating or knocking out malfunctioning genes, and introducing new genes to help the body fight disease.

Question 23

What are the risks associated with gene therapy?

Answer 23

Gene therapy is not viable for all diseases and carries risks. It is currently only being tested for diseases with no other cure, and the process of inserting genetically modified cells can be risky.

Question 24

What are the methods of gene therapy delivery?

Answer 24

Gene therapy can be delivered through ex vivo gene transfer, where genetically modified cells are inserted into the body, or through direct in vivo injection of viral vectors into target tissue.

Question 25

What are some common viral vectors used in gene therapy?

Answer 25

Common viral vectors used in gene therapy include retroviral vectors, lentiviral vectors, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and herpes simplex viruses.

Question 26

Describe the process of in vivo gene therapy.

Answer 26

In in vivo gene therapy, a new gene is inserted into a vector, which then enters target cells. The new gene is delivered into the nucleus and transferred to mRNA but is not integrated into the chromosomes.

Question 27

What are stem cell therapies?

Answer 27

Stem cell therapies provide new cells for the body as it grows and replace specialized cells that are damaged or lost.

Question 28

What are the unique properties of stem cells?

Answer 28

Stem cells have the ability to self-renew and can differentiate into other types of cells.

Question 29

What are the three main types of stem cells?

Answer 29

The three main types of stem cells are embryonic stem cells (pluripotent), adult stem cells (multipotent), and induced pluripotent stem cells (made in the lab).

Question 30

What are neural stem cells, and how are they used in therapy?

Answer 30

Neural stem cells are a self-renewing population that generates neurons and glia in the developing brain. They can be isolated, proliferated, genetically manipulated, and differentiated in vitro, then reintroduced into the developing adult or pathologically altered central nervous system for use in cell replacement therapies.

Question 31

What was the finding of the study by Kurtenbach et al. (2019)?

Answer 31

Kurtenbach et al. (2019) found that in mice with hyposomnia, stem cells delivered intranasally engrafted to produce olfactory neurons. These new neurons projected to the brain’s olfactory bulb, resulting in the recovery of the sense of smell.

Question 32

Why is Parkinson’s disease considered attractive for stem cell therapies?

Answer 32

Parkinson’s disease is attractive for stem cell therapies because much of the pathology arises from the loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra pars compacta. Stem-cell-derived replacements for these cells could be a viable treatment approach.