ELAR Flashcards
Why teach oral language ?
Oral language and good reading skills go hand in hand
Oral language skills translate to written skills.
Oral language skills help support reading and writing skills.
The three ways groups can be arranged are…
Randomly- no consideration
Homogeneously- similar (best for differentiation)
Heterogeneously- different (best for collaboration)
What is language acquisition?
The process by which individuals learn a language
Phonemes are…
the smallest individual sounds in a word
Phonetics is…
sounds of speech
Phonology is..
The organization of sounds in languages
Phonics is..
The relationship between symbols of writing and sounds
Morphology is..
The study of forms of words. This includes prefixes, roots, and suffixes. Each of these individual meaningful parts are called morphemes
Morphemes are..
a combination of sounds that have meaning in speech or writing and can’t be divided into smaller grammatical parts
Orthography is..
Conventions for proper spelling in a language
Syntax is..
Rules that govern the contraction of words in order to make phrases clauses and sentences
Semantics is..
The study of word or symbol meaning
Pragmatics is..
The study of language in use not in structure; the appropriate use of language
Segmentation is..
The recognizing of boundaries between words, syllables, or phonemes in spoken language
What are the smallest units of meaning in a word?
Morphemes
What are the smallest individual sounds in a word?
Phonemes
The ability to recognize individual phonemes in a word
Phonemic Awareness
Using knowledge of phonemes to read and write new words
Phonics
The ability to read with speed accuracy and inflection
Fluency
Vocabulary is..
The words a person knows and understands
Best taught in use not just in lists
The ability to read a text and understand its meaning
Reading Comprehension
In order to effectively increase a students oral language abilities and literacy development, teachers must focus their instruction on…
Phonemic awareness Phonics Fluency Vocabulary Reading Comprehension
Common sentence starters provided to use when generalizing, summarizing or transitioning between ideas
Sentence Stems
An instructional strategy in which the teacher demonstrates a concept or skill and students learn by observing
Modeling
These are useful in developing students oral language for specific purposes
Single word prompts
are words in two languages that share a similar meaning spelling and pronunciation
cognates
Oral language instruction works best when…
activities are geared towards the specific needs of the students but also built upon prior knowledge and lead the group to higher understanding.
Correctly ID phonemes in written or oral testing
Read a passage fluently and with the correct pronunciations
Modify speech inflection and volume as appropriate
Follow directions as appropriate for age
Carry on convo both with peers and the teacher
Use variety of sentence types and structures
are examples of ….
Oral Language assessments
The study of language in use, not in its structure; or the appropriate use of language
Pragmatics
Homogeneous Group
Group comprised of individuals working on the same level
A small group of students reading a book together on the same reading level is a homogeneous group
method of communication that focuses on mutual understanding to prevent confusion. Includes attending, listening, and responding.
Active Listening
Using the relationship between symbols (letters and words) and sounds of a language to read and write
Phonics / Graphophonemic Principle
group comprised of individuals working on various levels
Heterogeneous Group
questions that require more than a simple “yes” or “no” response and promote whole class and small group discussion
Open-Ended Question
a tool for assessing a students mastery of oral language skills
Growth Chart
The ability to read with appropriate speed, accuracy, and prosody
Reading Fluency
Phonemic Awareness / Sound Awareness
the ability to hear, identify, and re-create individual sounds in spoken words
The system that relates sounds to meanings through communicating by word of mouth.
Oral Language
the ability to effectively know and use words in their listening, speaking, reading, and writing
Vocabulary / Vocabulary Development
Teachers must. understand the developmental stages of phonological awareness so that they can …
Determine where a child is in their phonological development and plan activities that help them build to the next level
sounds in a syllable that comes before the vowel
Ex: FLOP the onset is FL
Onset
a string of letters that follow the initial letter usually a vowel and final consonants
Ex: MOP the rime is OP
Rime
What are the 8 phonemic awareness activities
Isolation identity Categorization Blending Segmentation Deletion Addition Substitution
Students hear individual sounds in words
Ex: TOP what is the first letter you hear ? (t) and the last letter ? (p)
Isolation
Students hear and identify the same sound in different words
Ex: what is the same sound in “teacher” “table” and “tree”
(t)
Identity
Students ID which word is different from in a list of words based on sounds
Ex: which word doesn’t belong,
cat king face
face doesn’t belong bc it doesn’t begin with (k)
Categorization
Student puts sound together to make word
Ex: what is /k/ /a/ /t/ ? cat
Blending
Students break words into their individual sounds and or count the number of sounds in a word (opposite of blending)
Segmentation
Students remove a sound from a word and ID what remains
Ex: CLAP without the /k/ is .. LAP
Deletion
Students create a new word by adding sound
Addition
Students change one sound in a word to a different sound and ID the new word
Ex: I’m thinking of a word that sounds like man but starts with /r/ … RAN
Substitution
A conversation or dialogue between two people
discourse
Listening Vocabulary
the words we need to know to understand what new hear
Speaking vocabulary
the words we use when we speak
reading vocabulary
the words we need to know to understand what we read
Writing vocabulary
the words we use in writing
Individualized instruction that is based on student strengths needs and learning styles
Differentiated instruction
language used to express ones ideas needs and feelings
Expressive language
receptive language
language that used to understand the thoughts needs and feelings of others
Based on current research, what is the best way for ELL students to be grouped in a content area class for a discussion activity?
heterogenous English-language levels and content-area knowledge
the ability to hear when words rhyme or sound the same at the end, like blue and flew
rhyme
the ability to identify when words have the same first sound, like candy and cookie
alliteration
knowing that individual words make up a sentence
EX; There are 5 words in the sentence “My dog has black spots.”
Word Awareness
the ability to hear the individual units with vowel sounds that make up a word
Syllable Awareness
hearing the sounds or sounds before the vowel in a syllable as the onset, and the vowel sound and everything after it as the rime
Onset-Rime Production
he ability to separate a single sound in a position of a word
Ex:
Initial Isolation: /j/ is the first sound in jet
Final Isolation: /t/ is the last sound in jet
Medial Isolation: /e/ is the middle sound in jet
Phoneme Isolation
the ability to blend individual sounds to make a word
Ex: /j/ /e/ /t/ makes jet
Phoneme Blending:
The ability to add one phoneme to a word
EX: Jet with /s/ at the end sounds like jets
Phoneme Addition
the ability to remove a phoneme from a word
EX: jet without the /j/ sounds like et
Phoneme Deletion
the ability to replace a phoneme in a word with another
Ex:changing the /j/ in jet to /s/ sounds like set
Phoneme Substitution
written letters that represent a spoken sound
Ex; a student writes the letter B when they hear the /b/ sound
Graphemes
Teachers must understand the developmental stages of phonological awareness as well as their progression s they can..
determine where a child is in their phonological development
plan activities that help them build to the next level
the ability to hear individual parts/syllables of words, is another necessary step in word analysis.
example: How many parts/syllables are there in the word run/dog/classroom/playing?
Syllabication
the ability to put together parts of a word and make them into a new word.
Ex. “sib” and “ling” are two syllables that blend together to form the word “sibling.
Syllable blending
listening to a word and being able to delete a syllable such as the beginning or ending one.
Ex. the word “classroom” has two syllables, “class” and “room,” so deleting a syllable leaves a different word.
Syllable deleting
students’ ability to recognize letters
and their sounds
alphabetic knowledge
alphabetic principle
being able to sound out words by breaking them into simple forms
Decoding
Process of literacy development
students’ ability to recognize letters (alphabetic knowledge) and their sounds (alphabetic principle)
students’ ability to hear words, syllables, and sounds (phonological awareness)
being able to sound out words by breaking them into simple forms (decoding)
reading and comprehending
the ability to write with meaning
when children understand that written language has meaning and gives messages. The students begin to recognize words in the environment or in text such as signs at McDonald’s, Walmart, etc. These students may be able to write a few letters, especially in their names, even though some of the letters could be reversed or in upper case.
emergent stage of development
begin understanding that reading from the printed page needs to make sense - both from the pictures and from the print. The students can usually identify most letters and know the sounds of some. These skills help them decode words and they sometimes even know a few words by sight, including times when they see the words in different locations/texts. Early readers are usually able to write a few words or at least beginning sounds of words and should be able to re-read their own writing.
Early or beginning readers
recognize many words and can apply phonics and word analysis skills to figure out unfamiliar words. Fluent readers do a better job at reading more easily and with accuracy and expression. These students are improving their skills in revising their writing and using correct punctuation and spelling.
Early fluent/fluent readers/proficient readers
When working with ELL’s on comprehension and fluency it is imperative that instruction includes…
phonemic awareness
phonics
decoding
word attack skills
Levels of phonological awareness
Less Complex to More complex
Rhyming and alliteration
Word awareness
Syllables ( blending and segmenting )
Onsets and rimes ( blending and segmenting)
Phonemic (sound) awareness (isolation, blending, segmenting, manipulating)
Phonemic addition, deletion, and substitution are all considered …
Phoneme Manipulation
the direction in which a language is read
Ex:The directionality of written English is from left to right.
Directionality
The general rules governing text
Ex: text is read from left to right and top to bottom
Print Concepts
A letter or letters at the beginning of a root word that changes its meaning
Ex: re, de, un
Prefix
Reading a word by sight, without attempting to decode it
ex: Memorizing sight words helps to support whole word reading.
Whole Word Reading
A letter or letters at the end of a root word that changes its meaning
Ex: s, es, ed, ing, ly, er, or, ion, tion, able, and ible
suffix
an affix that changes the root or base word into a new word
ex:When the derivational affix, “ful” is added to the noun, beauty, the word “beautiful” forms, meaning full of beauty.
Derivational Affix
A letter or letters that change a root word’s meaning
Ex: prefixes or suffixes
Affix
an online thesaurus
ex: thesaurus.com
Thesaurus (Digital)
a vowel followed by the letter r where the “r” that doesn’t make its normal short or long sound
ex: In the word, “tiger,” the letter e is an r-controlled vowel, as its pronunciation changes because it is followed by an r.
R-Controlled Vowel
a group of words with a shared ending letter group/sound
ex: back, black, stack, shack, quack, lack, tack
Word Families
use when you need to define a word
Dictionary (Print)
The vowel-consonant-e syllable has a silent “e” and makes the vowel before it long; this syllable is usually found at the end of a word
Ex: name, mice, cake, compete
Vowel-Consonant-E Syllable
breaking up a word and using the recognizable pieces to help in decoding
Structural / Morphemic Analysis
use of surrounding information in a text to help determine a word
Contextual clue/ Analysis
words that follow common letter/sound correspondence rules and can be “sounded out”
ex: For a third grader, words like “family” and “afternoon” are decodable.
Decodable Word
a word that appears often in grade-level text
ex:Words like “and”, “the”, “as” and “it” are high-frequency words.
High-Frequency Word
A consonant + -le syllable occurs at the end of a word. If the consonant + -le syllable is found next to an open syllable, then the vowel in the open syllable stays long. If the consonant + -le is next to a closed syllable, the vowel in the closed syllable stays short.
ex:bugle, candle, bubble, circle, and trample
Final Stable Syllable
a list of important words to know along with their meanings
Glossary
Syllable that ends in a vowel; the vowel has its long sound
ex: vacant, brutal, agent
Open Syllable
two vowels that make a single vowel sound when together in a word, also known as “vowel teams”
Ex: the “ai” in paint; the “ee” in need; the “oa” in boat
Vowel Digraph
se when you need to locate a more suitable synonym for a word
ex: The Oxford-American Writer’s Thesaurus
Thesaurus (Print)
the 220 most frequently used words that are considered basic level to the reading of a first or second grader in English
ex: Some words on the list include: am, are, at, be, but, came, did, have, he, into, like, now, on, our, out, please
Dolch Word List
words that have the same spelling as another word but have different meaning
ex; tired meaning fatigue (verb); tire meaning a rubber cushion that fits around a wheel of an automobile (noun)
Homographs
knowing what sound(s) each letter makes
ex;the letter “f” makes the first sound in the word “foot”
Letter–Sound Correspondence
the ability to read words effortlessly
Automaticity
a literal, dictionary meaning of a word
Denotative Meaning
Ability to associate sounds with letters and to use these sounds to form words
The understanding that words in spoken language are represented by letters in print
Sounds in words have a predictable relationship with the letters that represents these sounds
Alphabetic Principle
understanding that a sequence of written letters represents a sequence of spoken sounds
graph= write Phone= Sound
To write (letters) that represents sounds (phonemes)
Without these skills a child will have a difficult time reading
Graphophonemic Awareness
Using graphophonemic awareness to figure out, sound out new words
Decoding
the lines and symbols or letters written on the page
Code
refers to a students ability to apply graphophonemic awareness and decode written
Letter sound knowledge
a sound made when two or more letters join together to make a new sound specifically
ch sh th wh
Diagraphs
a sound made when two or more letters join together and make a new sound specifically
oi oy ou etc.
diphthongs
marks such as the cedilla beneath the c or the tilde above the n in Spanish or French marks which tell the reader to change how the sound or word is pronounced
diacritic marks
the ability to recognize the printed letters of the alphabet based on each letters unique shape
alphabetic recognition
students should be able to recognize all of the upper and lower case letters of the alphabet by the end which grade
kindergarten
late developing alphabetic recognition includes the distinction between block letters and cursive letters which should be learned by the end of which grade
third
the order in which alphabetic knowledge develops
alphabetic phases
in this stage can ID stores by the shape of their logo or symbols within the logo instead of by specifics in the logo
Pre- alphabetic stage
learners begin to connect the shape letters with sounds such as first letter of there classmates names
this stage is supported by playing blocks and being exposed to the alphabet indirectly through environmental print
Partial alphabetic phase
learners begin connect letters with sounds and using this connection between their oral vocabulary to determine the meaning of words
full alphabetic stage
learners begin to understand that they can use parts of words that know to help them decode new words.
they begin to make new words using onsets and rimes word families and letter chunks
consolidated alphabetic stage
uses the sounds of languages as the basic unit or writing
alphabetic writing system
words ideas and concepts are represented with a visual or image
pictograph writing system
syllables are depicted through the use of unique symbols
syllabic writing system
an effective classroom tool that utilizes environmental print
are alphabetized interactive displays of learned words or words that are about to be learned
help with acquisition of graphophonemic knowledge by reinforcing letter recognition and letter names
word walls
teaching letters and related sounds in a regular planned way coupled with frequent review will help students build alphabetic skills
systemic explicit instruction
teaching letters and sounds using multiple senses and methods help students master alphabet skills more rapidly and retain these skills over time
multi sensory techniques
used to asses a students ability to use letter sound knowledge to decode words
should be administered in middle and end of the year in kindergarten and middle and end of the year of first grade
nonsense word decoding
analyzing written works and their content
reading in between the lines
Literary Analysis
the parts of a story. These parts work together to form the spine of the story
character- people in the story
protagonists- the hero
antagonist- villain
setting - time and place the story took place
exposition- background information that a person must know in order to understand the current events
sequence of events- the order in which the events in the story occur
conflict- the problem or goal that motivates the protagonist
climax- the most important event of the story where things all seem to come together
resolution- how the conflict or problem is resolved
Story elements
the types of literature
novel drama short story poem novella
Forms of literacy works
type of comprehension that asks students to answer questions and ID facts that are directly stated in the text
literal comprehension
type of comprehension that asks students to respond to questions based on ideas and information that are directly stated in the text along with the use of their intuition background and experiences to reach a conclusion and to make inferences and predictions
inferential comprehension
type of comprehension that asks students to compare information from the text with their own experiences background and values
evaluative comprehension
the first stage children experience when learning about words. Words that are learned as whole units are sometimes embedded in a logo
Logographic awareness
concept that explains the importance of oral language to reading and writing
methods for building this are :
creating presentations and presenting them
whole group and class discussion
partner and peer collaborative work and problem solving
oracy
book handling parts of a book orientation directionality print carries meaning
concepts of print
how the words within the books are read (left to right)
directionally
when teachers touches the words that are being read so listeners can see the direction in which the words are read
should be discouraged after grade 1
finger touch
when teacher slide finger along the bottom of a line of text the next stage inn building directionality skills
should be discouraged after grade 1
finger tracking
children reading and writing development before formal instruction
emergent literacy
the three major authors purposes can be condensed into this acronym …
P- persuade
I- Inform
E- entertain
This skill includes
recognizing upper case letters
recognizes lower case letters
recognizes letters at the beginning of words
recognizes letters in the middle of words
recognizes easily confused letters b d p q E F
Letter recognition skills
This skill includes ID and use onsets and rimes ID rhyming words creates rhyming words uses rimes to create word families names sounds that match consonants names sounds that match vowels
letter sound recognition
this skill includes recognizing initial consonants recognizing ending consonant recognizing short vowels reads and writes cvc words recognizes long vowel sounds recognizes the silent e marker recognizes the two sounds of c recognizes the two sounds of g recognizes y as a vowel and consonant reads and writes CV words recognizes initial position letter blends recognizes consonant digraphs in the final positions CCVC Reads and writes blend words CCVC and CVCC recognize vowel diphthongs CVVC and CVV
consonant sound recognition
Decoding blending structural analysis sight words Vocabulary contextual clues
specific word recognition skills
using memory to ID high frequency words
Sight words
a structural element added to the beginning of a word in order to late the meaning pronunciation or function
Affix
Dolch words should be mastered by the end of what grade
3rd
the reading level that students should be at when they are reading to themselves
they must know 95% of the words
Independent reading level
the reading level of instruction
children know most of the words and the teacher provides support
students must know 90-94% of these words
Instructional Reading level
the reading level at which students become frustrated with reading and they must decode too many words to comprehend what they read
students know 89% or less of the words
Frustration reading level
bubble maps
demonstrate understanding of a concept and relationships between elements of the concept
Semantic maps
activity which students sort word cards by specific characteristics this builds a variety of skills with words and word recognition
word sorts
teach _____ in simple to complex progression
decoding
phonological awareness and decoding skills are pre-requisites for …
fluency
fluency involves…
rate -how fast a child reads
accuracy- how many words a child reads correctly and how many errors made
intonation- how well the child flows tonally to demonstrate important words character emotion and punctuation within a text
the flowing of speech
includes rhythm stress and tone of spoken word in text read aloud
prosody
to assess ____ the teacher must listen to the child eat aloud and assess each of the three aspects of fluency
reading fluency
___ should be asses in a regular systematic way with the students progress tracked and graphed
fluency
type of comprehension that asks students to answer questions and ID facts that are directly stated
ex: ID main ideas
ID supporting details
literal comprehension
type of comprehension that asks students to respond to questions based on ideas and info that are directly stated in the text along with the use of their intuition background and experiences to reach a conclusion and make inferences and conclusions
ex: ID cause and effect
making predictions
inferential comprehension
type of comprehension that asks students to compare info from the text with their own background experiences and values
ex: analyze characters
analyze use of language
determine authors pov
Evaluative comprehension
Monitoring comrehension using graphic and semantic organizers answering questions generating questions recognizing story structure summarizing making use of prior knowledge using mental imagery
are all strategies to improve…
text comprehension
setting purpose for reading
activate prior knowldge
predict
questioning
is done___ reading
before
self monitoring self correcting clarifying inferring visualizing supporting peers
is done__ reading
during
Re- teaching peers discussions summarizing utilizing what was read crating and using what was read writing in repose to reading
is done ___ reading
after
thinking about ones own thinking is
KWL charts help enhance this
metacognition
This method of teaching
explicitly systematically taught
teacher led
individual words are learned
word study: phonics , word structure meaning usage tenses and morphology
ex: bubble/graphic/semantic map, connotation denotation, demonstrations, illustrations, word sorts, word walls, thesaurus, dictionary, glossary , internet
direct teaching
This method of teaching
daily engagement in oral language
student led
listens to adults read to them
read extensively on their own
examples: discussions, dramatic play,langauge play , show and tell, pair interview, presentations projects, reading forms of literary works
indirect teaching
exhuming parts and pieces of words to extract meanings involves being able to use various methods such as :
dictionary use
graphic organizers
daily activities that focus on phonology
daily phonemes
word analysis
Vocabulary can be taught …
indirectly and directly
indirectly- when students interact daily with oral language listens to adults read to them and read at length on their own time
directly- when students are explicitly systematically taught to both individual words and word learning strategies
This kind of text are stories of a variety of types that allow readers to gain insight from he characters experiences
Narrative texts
this kind of text features factual information
Expository texts
stages of blooms taxonomy are..
remember understand apply analyze evauluate create
this kind of teaching encourages children to drive the learning process based on questions that they generate
inquiry based learning
the strategies to locate gather analyze critique and apply info as the student develops understanding
inquiry skills
Environmental print-noticing the logos signs and words children see in their daily lives all around them are the beginning stages of lit dev
mock letters - refers to young learners attempt to write including scribbling pictorial writing and invented letters that children create to mimic writing in the early stages of prewriting
letter formation - the student attempts to and learns to write letters
word writing- student puts letters together to form words
sentence construction- student puts words together to form complete sentences
grammatical expression-
Stages of writing
Students who can’t spell well lack ….
phonemic awareness.
create scribbles pictures letters letter like forms together but they don’t connect these marks with sound
letters and scribbles may be written back wards top to bottom randomly on the page and in no specific order though directionality does emerge in this stage
spellers may use both upper and lowercase letters nut uppercase letters are most frequently used
EC- kinder
learn these concepts: the difference between drawing and writing how to correctly form letters the direction of print beginning alphabetic principle
Early/emergent spelling stage
the first stage of spelling (scribbling stage )
the student does not communicate the stated message but instead shows understanding that print carries meaning
Ex: scribble , pictorial , letter like forms
pre-communicative stage (spelling)
the students uses letter sound relationships to create a string of letters that somewhat communicate and match sounds
semi phonemic stage (spelling )
then stage where he students move away from their reliance on phonics and concentrates on the words they may ned during writing
student writes words using beginning and ending sounds as well as vowel for most syllables
student usually leaves spaces between words and spells Hugh frequency words correctly. though may stumble upon spellings that are formed using simple letter sound patterns
student frequently writes more than one sentence
transitional spelling stage
the students spell most words correctly except when encountering a difficult word
complete sentences using periods capitals and questions marks are common though frequent mistakes are made
conventional spelling
the second stage where the student is beginning to form the letters but they are but they are undeveloped
pre phonemic stage (spelling )
the third stage where the sound correspondence is developed and the student uses their phonic knowledge to invent words they need even though spelling may not be accurate
phonemic stage (spelling )
the choice of words that the writer uses in the writing section that builds the meaning and the clarity of the text
vocabulary choice
imitation (pre-k) Graphic presentation (1-2) Progressive incorporation (2-4) Automatization ( 4-7) Elaboration (7-9) personalized diversification (9-above)
stages of writing
in this writing stage students will :
become aware of letters and number s
pretend to write
learn that these symbols represents sounds
begin forming letters on line
Imitation stage of writing
in this writing stage students will:
order words and letters for meaning
improve printing skills and focus on how letters appear
use invented spelling
graphic presentation
in this writing stage students will:
use writing more effectively to convey meaning or tell about experiences
begin using grammatical rules
can begin to plan and revise writing
progressive incorporation
in this writing stage students will
begin to use the writing process by planning drafting revising drafting their work
use grammatical concepts more automatically
become aware of how well their writing communicates experiences and processes
show voice
automatization
this kind of instruction provides high interest topics for writing, alternating between communication and and monitoring correctness, helps students understand that writing ability increases with effort, builds student confidence by providing targeted praise for effort ideas and improvement, alternated instruction between process and product, allow collaboration, model good writing
motivational instruction
the stages of writing are …
prewriting - thinking and planning writing
Drafting - put your ideas into writing using complete thoughts to form sentences and paragraphs
revising-improving your
editing- making your writing correct
publishing- creating a polished final draft of your work
this type of sentences contains one or more independent clauses but no dependent clauses
ex: the moon shines at night an duh sun beams down by day
compound sentence
this type of sentence is made up of a single independent clause a sentence part containing a subject and verb which makes sense on its own
ex: the moon rose
simple sentence
informed critical understanding of media and the ability to deconstruct media messages to determine hidden meanings and to evaluate the messages effectiveness
media literacy
refers to the way we use our senses and perceive the world, it is the ability to ID the visual and tactile qualities of the environment
visual literacy
these assessments are less systematic and regimented
ex: teacher observations, types of questions students themselves are asking, portfolios
** the greatest advantage to this assessment are their practicality in regard to preparation and grading time and their adaptability to student and situational need
informal assessments
the test scores of the test relate to the behavior to be expected of a person with score or their relationship to a specified subject matter and to assess to see if the student have learned the objectives and subject matter
criterion reference state test
the reading assessment materials are aligned with the curriculum usually included in the textbook or supported materials
curriculum based reading
individually administered to help assess the students needs in the reading area to determine the instructional focus for students
informal reading inventory
a test or evaluation the ID whether the test taker performed better or worse than other test takers
norm referenced test
a word or phrase that links a dependent clause to an independent clause.
This word or phrase indicates that a clause has informative value to add to the sentence’s main idea, signaling a cause-and-effect relationship or a shift in time and place between the two clauses.
ex: Robin wasn’t allowed in the Batmobile any longer because he wouldn’t wear a seatbelt.
subordinate conjunction
an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies (i.e., describes) the subject of the linking verb.
ex: the shoes look expensive
predicative adjective
brings together two complete thoughts like a conjunction. They use the second clause to modify the first clause like an adverb.
Jeremy kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.
conjuctive adverb
are used to describe indefinite and incomplete quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.
ex: I would like to go somewhere this summer.
(somewhere)
indefinite pronoun
