educational policy Flashcards
Define educational policy
It refers to government plans and strategies (through legislation and guidance) that shape how education is organised and delivered, e.g., school structure, curriculum, funding, etc.
Give an example of how governments enact educational policy
They pass education Acts in Parliament or issue guidelines to schools and local authorities on areas like funding, admissions, and curriculum requirements.
What four key issues does educational policies aim to address?
1) Equal opportunities
2) Selection and choice
3) Control of education
4) Marketisation and privatisation
What does equal opportunities refer to in relation to the key issues which education policy aim to adress?
ensuring fairness in access and resources.
What does Selection and choice refer to in relation to the key issues which education policy aim to adress?
how pupils are selected and how parents choose schools.
What does Control of education refer to in relation to the key issues which education policy aim to adress?
deciding who has the power to shape school structures and curriculum.
What does Marketisation and privatisation refer to in relation to the key issues which education policy aim to adress?
whether schools function like businesses or through private contracts.
Describe the state of education in Britain prior to the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
- There were no state schools; education was mainly for the wealthy or provided by charities.
- Poorer children had limited or no access to formal schooling.
What happened in the late 19th century regarding state involvement in education?
By 1880, the state made schooling compulsory for children aged 5 to 13
What did the the fact that by 1880, the state made schooling compulsory for children aged 5 to 13 reflect?
a growing acceptance that education should be a government responsibility.
How did middle-class children’s education differ from that of working-class children historically?
- Middle class: received an academic curriculum, preparing them for professional or office-based careers.
- Working class: basic numeracy and literacy, often geared towards factory or manual work.
How much public money was spent on mass education before the late 19th century?
- Very little.
- There was no widespread state provision for the majority of working-class children until the late 19th century.
What was the main principle behind the 1944 Education Act (Tripartite System)?
It introduced the idea of meritocracy
What is meritocracy?
the belief that individuals should achieve their status through their own efforts and abilities, rather than by ascribed status.
Name the three types of schools introduced by the Tripartite System.
1) Grammar schools
2) Secondary modern schools
3) Technical schools (though these were less common).
Explain how the 11+ exam was used in the Tripartite System.
determined which type of secondary school a child would attend.
Trpartite System
What school did children typically go to if they passed the 11+ exam?
Grammar School
Tripartite System
What school did children typically go to if they failed the 11+ exam?
a secondary modern
Which social class was most likely to attend grammar schools in the Tripartite System?
Middle-class pupils
Why were MC pupils more likey to attend grammar schools in the Tripartite System?
- as they tended to pass the 11+ exam more often,
- often due to their cultural advantages and better preparation.
Which social class typically ended up in secondary modern schools?
Working-class pupils
Why were WC pupils more likey to attend Secondary Modern schools in the Tripartite System?
- more likely to fail the 11+, receiving fewer academic opportunities.
How did the Tripartite System reproduce inequality?
- It separated children into different schools based on an exam at age 11,
- reinforcing class divisions
- since middle-class children usually went to grammar schools (with more resources)
- and working-class children to secondary moderns (with fewer prospects).
How did the Tripartite System legitimate inequality according to critics?
By claiming the 11+ measured “inborn ability,” it ignored the influence of a child’s environment and class background, thereby making class-based outcomes appear “fair.”
What was the aim of the Comprehensive System introduced from 1965?
- It sought to overcome class divisions from the Tripartite System
- and create a more meritocratic education
How did the Comprehensive System aim to overcome class divisions and improve meritocracy?
by abolishing the 11+ and uniting pupils in comprehensive schools.
Did all local education authorities adopt comprehensive schools after 1965?
No.
LEAs had the choice to go comprehensive or not, so some maintained grammar schools, meaning the divide still exists in certain areas today.
How do functionalists generally view comprehensive schools?
- They argue comprehensives help promote social integration
- and they see it as more meritocratic
Functionalist view on comprehensive school:
How do they believe it promotes social intergration?
by mixing children of different backgrounds
Functionalist view on comprehensive school:
How do they believe it promotes meritocracy?
it gives pupils longer to develop before being selected for different paths.
How do Marxists generally view comprehensive schools?
They believe comprehensives still reproduce class inequality through streaming and labelling
How do Marxists argue that the comprehensive schools diguise the fact they reproduce class inequality?
by making it appear that all pupils have equal opportunities.
Define “marketisation” in the context of education.
It’s the process of introducing competition and consumer choice into schools, turning them into businesses in an “education market.”
Which government introduced the 1988 Education Reform Act that accelerated marketisation?
The Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher.
Under which conservative prime minister was the 1988 Educational Reform Act introduced?
Margaret Thatcher
Under what ideological influence was the Education Reform Act (1988) introduced?
New Right / Neoliberal
What were the 6 key features of the educational reform act (1988)?
- National Curriculum
- Standardised Testing (SATs & GCSEs)
- League Tables
- Formula Funding
- Parental Choice (Open Enrolment)
- Ofsted Inspections (created in 1992, linked to the Act’s aims)
When were Ofsted inspections created?
1992
Name two governments after 1988 that continued marketisation policies.
1) New Labour governments (1997–2010).
2) Conservative-led Coalition (2010–2015) and subsequent Conservative governments.
What period was the New Labour government in power?
1997-2010
What period was the Coalition government in power?
2010 - 2015
According to Stephen Ball (1994), what is the overall impact of marketisation on schools?
Marketisation increases inequalities, as successful schools attract more resources and students, whereas underperforming schools face a downward spiral.
What are league tables, and why do they matter in a marketised system?
They publicly rank schools by exam results. High-ranking schools attract more able students (and thus more funding), reinforcing their success, while lower-ranking schools struggle to improve.
Explain “cream-skimming” in the context of school admissions.
Cream-skimming is when successful schools choose the best (often higher-achieving, middle-class) pupils, ensuring continued good results and reputation.
What is “silt-shifting,” and why might schools do it?
Silt-shifting is where successful schools offload or avoid taking pupils who might damage their league table performance (e.g., lower-achieving or SEN pupils), shifting them to less successful schools.
How does ‘formula funding’ work for schools?
Schools get money per pupil. Popular schools grow richer because they attract more students; under-subscribed schools receive less funding, making it harder to improve.
Define “parentocracy.”
Literally, “rule by parents.” In a marketised education system, parents are seen as consumers who choose schools, supposedly giving them more power than schools.
Why does Stephen Ball argue that parentocracy is a myth?
Because middle-class parents have the economic and cultural capital to exploit choice effectively, while working-class parents often lack these resources. Thus, real power remains with those who can navigate the system best.
How does “myth of parentocracy” legitimate inequality?
It hides the real causes of inequality (e.g., social class differences) behind the façade that everyone “chooses” freely and equally, making inequality seem the fault of individual parents or children, not the system.
Identify the three types of parental choosers described by Gewirtz (1995).
1) Privileged-skilled choosers
2) Disconnected-local choosers
3) Semi-skilled choosers
Who are privileged-skilled choosers, and what resources do they have?
They are middle-class parents with both cultural capital (knowing how the system works) and economic capital (money, transport, ability to move), allowing them to secure the best schools for their children.
Who are disconnected-local choosers, and how do their choices differ?
Primarily working-class parents with limited economic and cultural capital. They often rely on local schools and may feel less confident dealing with school structures, reducing their “choice.”
Explain semi-skilled choosers in Gewirtz’s typology.
Also mostly working-class, but more ambitious. They want the best for their children yet often struggle with complex admissions procedures due to less cultural capital than middle-class parents.
Summarise how Gewirtz’s findings link parental choice and class inequality.
- Middle-class parents can better utilize marketised schooling through their resources, reinforcing class advantage.
- Working-class parents have fewer options and struggle to navigate the system, reproducing inequality.
State the policies introduced by New Labour (1997–2010) to reduce inequality.
1) Education Action Zones
2) Aim Higher
3) Education Maintenance Allowances (EMAs)
4) City Academies
5) National Literacy Strategy and smaller primary class sizes
New Labour Policies - reducing inequality
What are Education Action Zones?
extra resources for disadvantaged areas
New Labour Policies - reducing inequality
What was the goal of the Aim Higher scheme?
to encourage under-represented groups to consider university.
New Labour Policies - reducing inequality
What is the Educational Maintenance Allowance (EMA)?
payments of £30 a week to poorer 16–19-year-olds students to remain in post-16 education.
New Labour Policies - reducing inequality
What was the aim of city academies?
to raise achievement in struggling inner-city schools.
New Labour Policies - reducing inequality
What was the goal of the National Literacy Strategy and smaller primary class sizes?
to boost achievement.
What was the ‘New Labour paradox’ Melissa Benn (2012) identified?
While EMAs helped poorer students stay in education,
New Labour also introduced tuition fees for higher education, which could deter the same students from attending university.
What changes did the Conservative-led Coalition (2010–2015) make regarding academies?
- They expanded academies beyond failing schools;
- any school could convert to an academy
Conservative-led Coalition (2010–2015)
What did they expansion of academies beyond failing schools increase the move away from?
local authority control.
What are free schools, introduced under the Coalition government?
state-funded but set up and run by parents, faith groups, businesses, or charities.
Coalition (2010–2015)
What did free schools give more than state schools?
More autonomy
Coalition (2010–2015)
What are the key features of free schools?
- Do not have to follow the national curriculum
- Set their own term dates, staff pay, and admissions policies
- Funded directly by the central government (Department for Education), not the local council.
- Can be established in response to local demand
Coalition 2010- 2015
even though free schools do not have to follow the national curriculum, what must they still offer?
a “broad and balanced” education
How did austerity measures after 2010 affect education spending?
- school building funds
a 60% reduction in school building funds
Why did the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government introduced austerity policies (2010)?
to reduce the national budget deficit following the 2008 financial crisis.
How did austerity measures after 2010 affect education spending?
- Sure Start Centres
Over 1,000 centres closed, reducing support for low-income families.
How did austerity measures after 2010 affect education spending?
- EMA (Education Maintenance Allowance)
- Abolished
- and Replaced by a smaller bursary, which reached fewer students.
How did austerity measures after 2010 affect education spending?
- University Tuition Fees
in 2012, tuition fees were raised to £9,000 a year (now up to £9,250).
How did austerity measures after 2010 affect education spending?
-Public Sector Pay
Freeze
Teachers and other education workers had pay frozen or capped, impacting morale and recruitment.
What is Marxist view on Austerity policies introduced by the 2010 coalition government?
- deepened class inequality in education.
- WC and vulnerable students lost crucial support.
- EMA abolition and Sure Start cuts reduced life chances for poorer youth.
What is New Right view on Austerity policies introduced by the 2010 coalition government?
- was necessary to reduce public spending and make the system more efficient.
- Encouraged self-reliance and pushed schools to do more with les
What did Reay et al. (2005) find in relation to the WC and university choices?
that working-class students are more likely to choose local, lower-status universities for a range of economic and cultural reasons
Why did David Cameron say he was promoting education reform during 2010–2015?
- He claimed the aim was to encourage excellence, competition, and innovation
- by freeing schools from the “dead hand of the state,” thus speeding up marketisation.
According to Rebecca Allen (2010), what was the impact of free schools in Sweden?
they mainly benefited children from highly educated families, and the nation’s overall educational performance declined in international rankings.
Roughly what % of school are free schools in Sweden?
20%
How did free schools potentially cause social divisiveness in England?
often take fewer disadvantaged pupils. For instance, only 6.4% at Bristol Free School were eligible for free school meals (FSM) compared with 22.5% across the city, contributing to social division.
Define Ball’s concept of “fragmented centralisation.”
1) Fragmentation: education now consists of diverse provision (academies, free schools, etc.), causing inequality.
2) Centralisation: government controls who can become an academy or open a free school, bypassing local authorities.
What is the Pupil Premium, and who is it meant to help?
It’s extra funding given to schools for each pupil from a disadvantaged background, designed to support those who may need additional help.
What did Ofsted (2012) find about schools’ use of the Pupil Premium?
Many schools did not spend it on the disadvantaged children for whom it was intended, and only about 1 in 10 headteachers said it significantly changed the way they supported poorer pupils.
Which major education maintenance policy was scrapped by the Coalition government, potentially harming low-income 16–18-year-olds?
The Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) was abolished, removing financial support that helped poorer students stay in post-16 education.
Name two other funding cuts that affected working-class pupils after 2010.
1) Sure Start centres were closed or scaled back.
2) University tuition fees increased to £9,000 a year, making higher education less accessible for some.
What is privatisation of education, according to Ball?
It’s when public assets (like schools or educational services) are transferred to private companies, turning education into a commodity that can be sold for profit.
Give three examples of private sector involvement in education (the ‘education services industry’).
1) Building and managing schools through public-private partnerships (PPPs).
2) Providing supply teachers, careers advice, or Ofsted services.
3) Running local authority services, such as training or school finance.
Why do local authorities often have little choice but to enter public-private partnerships?
They lack government funding to build or renovate schools independently, so they must rely on PPPs to secure investment, even though these can be very profitable for private firms.
According to Ball (2007), how profitable can public-private partnerships be for companies?
Companies can expect to make up to ten times more profit than on standard contracts, making education a lucrative market.
What is meant by the ‘cola-isation’ of schools, as described by Sharon Beder (2009)?
It refers to the private sector’s infiltration into schools through branding, sponsorships, and vending machines, fostering brand loyalty among pupils.
Which sociologist describes the ‘cola-isation’ of schools?
Sharon Beder (2009)
What example illustrates how limited the benefits of such private sponsorship can be for schools?
- parents spending £110,000 in Tesco supermarkets to get a single free computer for their school,
- highlighting how companies gain significant publicity while schools get relatively little.
What does Ball mean by describing education as a “commodity”?
He argues privatisation transforms education into something bought and sold for profit, rather than a public service, thus making private profit-making appear legitimate within the sector.
Who describes education as a commodity?
Ball
Which large corporations own leading UK educational software companies, according to Buckingham and Scanlon (2005)?
Major global multinationals like Disney, Mattel, Hambro, and Vivendi own the UK’s four leading educational software providers
What does the fact major global multinational is own leading UK educational software companies mean?
showing how international companies penetrate the education market.
How does globalisation relate to the privatisation of education?
As education policies and services are increasingly influenced by global companies, nation-states lose some of their power over policy-making, which shifts towards transnational corporations.
Summarise Stuart Hall’s (2011) Marxist view of Conservative government policies on education.
Hall sees them as part of the “long march of the neoliberal revolution,”
using the myth that competition raises standards to justify privatisation and turn education into a source of private profit.
What do Marxists argue about the neoliberal claim that competition raises educational standards?
- They see it as an ideological justification that serves business interests,
- rather than genuinely improving outcomes.
- It often leads to greater inequality, not higher standards for everyone.
How have policies of selection, such as the 11+, affected social class inequality in education?
They often channel middle-class pupils into higher-status schools (grammar) and working-class pupils into lower-status schools (secondary modern), reproducing class divisions in achievement and opportunity.
Explain how marketisation policies (like league tables and formula funding) can create a cycle of success for certain schools.
Popular schools do well in league tables, attract more students and funding, invest in better resources, and continue to outperform less popular schools—reinforcing their position at the top.
What is the downward spiral faced by less popular schools in a marketised system?
They get fewer pupils, less funding, and poorer resources, struggle to improve, and may become even less appealing, trapping them in ongoing underachievement.
what does the “sink school” effect refer to?
where underperforming schools become trapped in a cycle of underachievement and stigma.
How does the concept of ‘cultural capital’ help explain different parental ability to engage with marketisation?
Middle-class parents often know how to network, fill out applications effectively, and understand the best strategies to get their children into top schools, while working-class parents may lack such knowledge or confidence.
Give an example of a New Labour initiative aimed at supporting disadvantaged primary schools.
Education Action Zones (EAZs) brought extra funding and resources to underperforming areas to help raise standards among younger pupils.
What was the purpose of the Aim Higher programme under New Labour?
It sought to encourage students from under-represented backgrounds (often working class) to aim for higher education, addressing low university participation rates.
How did the introduction of tuition fees potentially undermine Aim Higher’s goals?
Tuition fees created a financial barrier that could put off exactly those low-income students whom Aim Higher intended to encourage into university.
Why was EMA (Education Maintenance Allowance) considered important for post-16 students from low-income families?
It provided weekly payments to help cover costs like travel, books, or meals, making it more feasible for disadvantaged students to remain in education beyond age 16.
Which Conservative-led policy replaced local authority control with more direct government control over schools?
The expansion of academies (and introduction of free schools) meant schools could bypass local authorities, but they ultimately had to answer to central government rules.
How did free schools theoretically increase parental control over education?
Parents (and other groups) could establish and run their own state-funded schools, tailoring education to specific local needs or preferences.
Why do critics argue free schools worsen social inequalities?
free schools often fail to recruit proportional numbers of disadvantaged children
* and can create more socially segregated intakes.
What is the main argument behind Cameron’s push for ‘excellence, competition, and innovation’?
The belief that market forces and autonomy from local authorities drive up school standards, even though critics say it also increases inequality between schools.
Name one negative consequence of cutting Sure Start centres.
It reduced early years support for disadvantaged families, potentially widening developmental gaps that appear before primary school.
Why is the abolition of EMA seen as a step backward for social mobility?
It removed financial support that helped keep poorer students in post-16 education, potentially leading them to drop out earlier due to monetary pressures.
How do privatisation trends align with neoliberal ideology?
- Neoliberalism favours reduced state intervention and expansion of the private sector,
- so privatising education fits the idea that markets and private companies are more ‘efficient.’
What are the potential downsides of private companies managing local authority services like Ofsted inspections or supply teaching?
Critics suggest profit motives may lead to cost-cutting, lower quality, or uneven provision, plus reduced accountability to the public.
Explain how PPPs (Public-Private Partnerships) can lock schools into long-term financial commitments.
Schools might enter long contracts requiring them to pay fees to private companies for facilities or services over many years, diverting funds from teaching or other resources.
Give an example of how multinational corporations shape education policy beyond the UK.
UK-based educational firms sometimes sell Ofsted-style inspection services abroad, or corporations like Disney and Mattel produce educational content used globally, influencing how and what students learn.
According to Hall’s critique, what is the real motive behind the claim that “competition drives up standards”?
Hall (Marxist) argues it’s a myth to justify transferring public services to private capital, allowing businesses to profit, rather than genuinely seeking to raise educational outcomes for all.
How do Marxists interpret policies that appear to offer more parental choice or autonomy?
They see such policies as ideological tools that hide the fact that real power and advantage go to wealthy or middle-class families, reproducing class inequality.
Overall, how do selection (Tripartite), marketisation (league tables), and privatisation all link back to inequality?
They often reinforce class divisions: selection advantages the middle class at the outset; marketisation compounds these advantages; privatisation further commodifies education, leaving disadvantaged groups with fewer real choices or resources.
Explain the conflict between policies to create an educational market and those to prevent inequalities
Policies from the Tripartite System to New Labour, then the Coalition and beyond, show a continuous tension between creating an education market (which often increases inequality) and trying to mitigate the resulting inequalities, often with mixed or contradictory results.
In 1992, the Conservative government passed legislation under the Further and Higher Education Act.
What did this allow for?
polytechnics and some colleges to gain university status.
what are new universities sometimes referred to as?
Post 1992 Universities
Post 1992 Universities
What did the move of polytechnics and some colleges to gain university status extend?
This move extended marketisation principles beyond schools and into the higher education sector.
Post 1992 Universities
Rather than traditional prestiege, what were students now able to select institutions based on?
perceived quality, location, and value for money
Post 1992 Universities
What did the shift in 1992 do?
- not only increased competition between universities
- but also encouraged a consumer-driven approach to education.
