Education - Class Flashcards
What is labelling theory in education?
Labelling theory suggests teachers often attach a label to a pupil based on how closely they match the ‘ideal pupil’ image, not actual ability. Becker argues these labels shape teacher–pupil interactions and can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.
How does labelling impact achievement?
Negative labels (often given to W/C pupils) can result in rejection of school values, formation of anti-school subcultures, and underachievement. Positive labels (often given to M/C pupils) can boost achievement through pro-school attitudes.
Margaret Fuller (1984) found black girls labelled as low-achievers worked harder to disprove their label.
What is the evaluation of labelling theory?
Criticised as deterministic — it focuses too much on teacher agency. Structural sociologists argue school systems encourage teacher labelling. Some students reject negative labels. Practical solution: teacher training to prevent labelling bias.
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
When a student internalises and lives up to the label they’ve been given by teachers or schools — this can be positive or negative.
How does self-fulfilling prophecy affect achievement?
A negative label usually applied to W/C students can lead to anti-school subcultures and failure. A positive label for M/C pupils can encourage academic success and alignment with school values.
What is the evaluation of self-fulfilling prophecy?
Deterministic — assumes all students passively accept their labels. Some students reject negative labels and still succeed.
What’s the difference between setting and streaming?
Setting: Placing students into ability groups per subject. Streaming: Grouping students by ability across all subjects.
What is the impact of setting and streaming on achievement?
W/C pupils usually placed in lower sets/streams, leading to lower self-esteem and achievement. Limited access to challenging work restricts their academic progress.
What is the evaluation of setting and streaming?
Critics say it disadvantages lower-ability pupils. But streaming can stretch high-ability students and promote higher achievement in top sets.
What are the types of pupil subcultures?
Anti-school subcultures: Found in lower streams; reject school values, truant, cause disruption. Pro-school subcultures: Found in higher streams; committed to school values, gain status via achievement.
What is the impact of pupil subcultures on achievement?
W/C pupils more likely in anti-school subcultures — status achieved through bad behaviour not grades, leading to failure.
What is the evaluation of pupil subcultures?
Not all pupils join subcultures. Some defy the trend and succeed regardless of set or stream.
What is habitus?
Bourdieu: Habitus is a set of learned norms, tastes, and expectations shared by a social class — what’s “normal” to people “like us.”
What is the impact of habitus on education?
M/C habitus aligns with school values — gives M/C students an advantage. W/C habitus is devalued; W/C pupils feel they must change to succeed. Higher education seen as unrealistic for them.
What is the evaluation of habitus?
Postmodernists say class identity matters less now due to “pick and mix” culture — students can shape their own identities.
What are external factors in education?
External factors refer to influences on educational attainment that originate outside the education system, such as family background, income, and cultural experiences.
What are the three domains of external factors affecting educational achievement by class?
- Material Deprivation
- Cultural Deprivation
- Cultural Capital (Bourdieu)
What is material deprivation in education?
The lack of essential material and economic resources needed to support a student’s educational experience effectively.
According to Douglas (1964), what are the two types of material deprivation?
- Home and health
- Hidden cost of education
How does housing affect educational achievement?
Overcrowded housing makes it difficult for children to study or sleep, increasing noise and distractions. It also raises the risk of illness due to easier spread of infections.
How does diet affect educational achievement in low-income families?
Poor families may consume processed, unhealthy food, leading to lower immunity and concentration. Malnutrition can lead to vitamin deficiencies, impacting cognitive function.
How does part-time work relate to material deprivation?
Low-income families may pressure children to take part-time jobs, reducing time and energy for study.
How does lack of nursery provision affect achievement?
Children who miss nursery education may start school with lower cognitive and language skills, impacting early learning, especially in low-income families.
What is the hidden cost of education?
Bull (1980) argued state education is not truly free due to costs like uniforms, stationery, trips, lunch, and equipment for certain subjects.
What does Tanner (2003) say about the financial burden of education?
Hidden costs stigmatize low-income students who may face bullying or feel excluded, deterring them from full participation or further education.
How did COVID-19 lockdowns highlight hidden education costs?
Students without internet access or personal devices struggled to engage with remote learning, widening the attainment gap between rich and poor.
What is cultural deprivation?
The idea that working-class students lack the values, attitudes, knowledge, and skills needed to succeed academically.
What is Bourdieu’s concept of ‘habitus’?
Habitus is the cultural framework shaped by upbringing. Working-class habitus often clashes with the school’s middle-class culture, disadvantaging students.
What did Douglas and Feinstein find about parental interest?
Working-class parents showed less interest in education, discipline, or school events compared to middle-class parents, affecting children’s achievement.
What did Sugarman (1970) identify as working-class values?
- Fatalism
- Collectivism
- Immediate gratification
- Present-time orientation
What are middle-class values according to Sugarman?
- Optimism
- Individualism
- Delayed gratification
- Future-time orientation
What does Hyman (1967) argue about social class and culture?
Each class has its own habitus or cultural framework. Schools reflect middle-class habitus, disadvantaging others through symbolic violence.
What is symbolic violence (Bourdieu)?
The process by which middle-class culture is seen as superior, making working-class students feel their own culture is inferior.
What are language codes according to Bernstein (1975)?
• Restricted code: Used by working class. Limited vocab, reliant on context, particularistic.
• Elaborated code: Used by middle class. Complex grammar, universal meanings, context-independent.
How does language code disadvantage the working class?
Education uses elaborated code, so working-class children using restricted code may struggle, leading to underachievement and symbolic violence.
What is cultural capital (Bourdieu)?
Non-economic resources such as tastes, language, hobbies, and education that give middle-class students an advantage in school.
What are Bourdieu’s three forms of capital?
- Economic capital – money, assets
- Cultural capital – tastes, education
- Social capital – networks, connections
What did Alice Sullivan (2001) find about cultural capital?
Students who read complex fiction and watched documentaries had better vocabulary and GCSE results—mostly from middle-class families.
What did Robert Putnam (2000) say about social capital?
High social capital helps individuals believe in their potential due to better networks, boosting ambition and educational success.
What did Gewirtz say about parental choice and capital?
Parents’ capital influences school choice. She identified:
1. Privileged-skilled choosers (middle class, well-informed)
2. Disconnected-local choosers (working class, less informed)
3. Semi-skilled choosers (in-between)
How does marketisation reinforce inequalities, according to Gewirtz?
Parents with cultural/economic capital can understand complex school documents and navigate systems, giving their children better school access.
What is Nell Keddie’s (1973) criticism of cultural deprivation theory?
She argued it blames the victim and wrongly labels working-class culture as deficient, reinforcing symbolic violence.
What are some policy responses to material deprivation?
• Pupil Premium
• Uniform swap shops
• After-school/homework clubs
• Online parents’ evenings
What did Anderson, Fleming & Steiner (1994) argue about working-class parents?
They are not disinterested but face time poverty due to shift work and multiple jobs, limiting involvement in their child’s education.
What did Blackstone & Mortimer (1994) argue?
Disinterest claims are symbolic violence. Working-class parents may be misrepresented due to scheduling conflicts or lack of resources.
How did Tronya & Williams (1986) critique Bernstein’s language theory?
They rejected the idea that working-class language is deficient, calling it symbolic violence and oversimplified. Language is different, not worse.
How can children’s TV shows influence cultural development?
Shows like Sesame Street and Stop It and Tidy Up promote language and social development. Criticisms exist for shows like Teletubbies due to poor speech models.
Why is the view of external factors as deterministic criticised?
It ignores individual agency and oversimplifies how structure affects outcomes. Students still have capacity to achieve despite socioeconomic barriers.
What did Hubbs-Tait suggest about parents and cognitive ability?
Parents who challenge their children’s thinking are more likely to promote higher cognitive ability.
What did Feinstein suggest about cognitive ability?
High cognitive ability is more likely in families where the parents are educated and therefore middle class.
What did Bernstein say about language codes?
Working-class children use a restricted code: simple grammar, limited vocabulary, gestures, reliant on context. Middle-class children use an elaborated code: complex grammar, fuller sentences, abstract ideas. The education system favors the elaborated code, giving middle-class students an advantage.
What did Douglas say about parental attitudes and achievement?
Working-class parents show less interest in education. They are less likely to push for achievement or attend school events, leading to lower levels of motivation and achievement in children.
What did Feinstein say about parenting style and education?
Middle-class parents socialize their children into discipline and educational behaviours more consistently than working-class parents.
What are the 4 elements of working-class subculture identified by Sugarman?
- Fatalism – belief that status is fixed and unchangeable 2. Collectivism – valuing the group over individual achievement 3. Immediate gratification – prioritising short-term rewards over long-term goals 4. Present-time orientation – focusing on the now rather than the future.
How does Sugarman link subculture to job security?
Middle-class jobs offer secure progression and reward planning ahead, reinforcing long-term educational goals. Working-class jobs do not, so these values are not socialised.
What hidden costs of education did Tannen identify?
Transport, books, computers, uniforms, equipment, and field trips — these can financially burden working-class families.
What did Flaherty say about stigma and FSM? What did Smith and Noble say about material deprivation?
Working-class pupils are at a disadvantage because they cannot afford private tuition or resources, such as computers and books.
What did Ridge say about working-class pupils and paid work?
Working-class students may need to take part-time jobs to support their families, reducing the time and energy available for schoolwork.
How can overcrowding affect education?
It creates poor conditions for studying (e.g., noise, no space), disturbs sleep, and increases the risk of illness, all of which lower educational performance.
What health issues are linked to poverty according to Howard?
Poorer families have less access to nutritious food, leading to lower energy, increased absence from school, and poor concentration.
What did Wilkinson say about hyperactivity and education?
Children from lower-income backgrounds are more likely to experience hyperactivity and ADHD by age 10, which affects concentration and achievement.
What are the three types of capital identified by Bourdieu?
- Cultural Capital – attitudes, values, knowledge, and language 2. Economic Capital – money and household income 3. Educational Capital – academic success and qualifications.
How are Bourdieu’s types of capital interlinked?
They are convertible. For example, economic capital (money) can buy cultural experiences (e.g., books, museums), which increases cultural capital and leads to better educational achievement.
How does economic capital affect access to education?
It can be used to buy private education, tuition, or resources that support academic success, increasing educational capital.
What did Alice Sullivan’s study involve?
She used questionnaires to assess 465 GCSE students’ cultural capital.
What did Sullivan find?
Students with greater cultural capital (e.g., who read complex fiction or watched serious documentaries) achieved higher results. Most of these students were middle class.
What did Sullivan conclude about cultural capital and education?
Cultural capital helped explain achievement, but access to resources, social class, and aspirations also played key roles in success.
What stigma is associated with claiming Free School Meals (FSM)?
There is stigma associated with claiming Free School Meals (FSM), and some students avoid it, leading to further disadvantage.
