domestication

Question 1

behavior

Answer 1

response to stimuli

Question 2

behaviors performed in order to:

Answer 2

survive
* obtain food
* avoid predators
* care for young
* find shelter
* attract mates

Question 3

natural selection’s relationship w/ behavior

Answer 3

B shaped by NS pressures
* fit B that allowed org to survive & reproduce were inherited
* ex: prairie dogs w/ early & loud alarm calls have ↑ survival rate ➞ more offspring that survive

Question 4

relaxed selection

Answer 4

NS pressures are relieved due to change that eliminates initial cause of pressure ➞ traits can:
* stay the same
* be reduced
* become more variable ➞ relaxation could allow for mating ➞ change in allele freq ➞ new traits can arise
* ex: moths in tahiti exhibit less startle response to bats’ echolocation sounds compared to all others b/c no bats in envir
* ex: dom chx vs wild red jungle fowl

Question 5

artificial selection

Answer 5

humans selectively breed for desired traits increasing allele freq
* genetics change B present at birth
* ex: southeast asian elephants still fear humans at birth but become habituated ≠ domestication
* humans have not done anything to relieve survival pressure as to change biology at birth

Question 6

selection pressures of domestic vs wild

Answer 6

domestication does not breed selection pressures out ➞ still have same pressures to survive & reproduce but they are now relaxed pressures
* artificial selection adds “provide milk for humans” pressure to domesticated animals
* domestic cows do not need to be good at survival B ➞ will still be bred ➞ gives false high fitness

Question 7

domestication

Answer 7

• used for distinct pupose: human purpose

Question 8

animal species that have been domesticated

Answer 8

• humans could not domesticate many animals due to aggression ➞ could not initiate contact
• only certain animals have been domesticated b/c of B shaped by selection pressures
  
  • ex: zebras in africa adapted strong defense B due to severe predation pressure ➞ B allow defense against humans as well
• B like:
  
  • high vigilance
  • suspicion
  • aggression

Question 9

1st wave of domestication

Answer 9

• 8,000-15,000ya
• dog = 1st ➞ grey wolf
  
  • both humans & wolves collective group hunters
  • before separate but formed association until humans captured/maintained wolves
  • close proximity + human influence ➞ inbreeding ➞ dogs
• cats = semi-domesticated ➞ african wildcat
  
  • ‘self-domesticated’ ➞ with domestic ag came mice ➞ cats eat mice ∴ cats = pest control
  • some human involvement: cats associate with humans ➞ inbreeding
• horses: used for both livestock & companion
  
  • wild horse (mongolia) = common ancestor (Przewalski’s horse closest descendent)
  • cultural importance
  • useful for meat, milk, transport, labor

Question 10

wild-type ancestor characteristics

Answer 10

• highly social
• breed at an early age (<2y)
• not monogamous (no strong mating bonds)
• precocous young
• generalized feeding B
• long mating seasons (fertile window)
• limited sensitivity to envir change
  
  • not flighty
  • ex: zebras evolved in open planes with many predators ➞ very flighty = higher fitness ➞ selective pressures made them hard to domesticate

Question 11

wild-type ancestors of:
sheep
pigs
dog
cat
horse

Answer 11

• sheep: mouflon
• pigs: sus scrofa
• dog: grey wolf
• cat: african wildcat
• horse: przewalski’s horse (last surviving species of common ancestor, wild-type extinct)

Question 12

common physical characteristics of domesticated species

Answer 12

• black & white coloring
• wavy/curled hair
• shortened or rolled tails
• shorter snouts & smaller teeth ➞ smaller skull/brain size
• floppy ears
• neotany: characteristics of baby form ➞ domesticatd adult = stunted/malformed verson

Question 13

2nd wave of domestication

Answer 13

• w/in last 100y
• fur animals, lab animals, new types of meat

Question 14

sivler fox (fox farm) experiment

Answer 14

• breeding for tameness
• unintended change in fur color (to black & white), shorter snout length, & curled tail
• tame wolves exhibit B of youth
• pleiotropy

Question 15

are dom animals unable to perform all B of wild-type?

Answer 15

• NO ➞ dom does not change in motor patterns, just when/how often B is performed (threshhold)
  
  • ex: basenji dogs don’t bark but still can
  • ex: sows gather materials & build nests during parturition, even w/out opportunity, cows will show motor patterns
• ex: domestication of red jungle fowl
  
  • wild reprd: seasonal breeders, 10-15 eggs/y
  • dom reprod: eggs all yr round
  • wild pred response: altern, freeze, alarm calls
  • dom pred resomse: none
  • wild home: active
  • dom home: inactive
  • wild social interaction: active & engaged
  • dom social interaction: less social
  • wild feeding B: mixed food ➞ prefer to work for food = contrafreeloading
  • dom feeding B: free food ➞ easy access ➞ relaxed selection

Question 16

contrafreeloading

Answer 16

animal chooses to work for food in presence of easily accessible food
* ex: wild red jungle fowl

Question 17

domestication of wild red jungle fowl

Answer 17

• wild reprd: seasonal breeders, 10-15 eggs/y
• dom reprod: eggs all yr round
• wild pred response: altern, freeze, alarm calls
• dom pred resomse: none
• wild home: active
• dom home: inactive
• wild social interaction: active & engaged
• dom social interaction: less social
• wild feeding B: mixed food ➞ prefer to work for food = contrafreeloading
• dom feeding B: free food ➞ easy access ➞ relaxed selection
• relaxed selection
• principle of allocation: change in priorities ➞ dom chx are inveseting more resources in growth & reprod, less in defense characteristics

Question 18

behavioral genetics

Answer 18

scientific discipline that attempts to understand how genes affect B
* most B shaped by both
* even those w/ large envir component need appropriate envir stimuli to be expressed
* even learned B have genetic basis
* capacity for learning
* physical capabilities
* envir can be stronger than genetics if placed in the proper one:
* ex: “intelligent” mice did better in normal envir but performed the same as their less intelligent counterpart in enriched & restricted envir
* enriched envir: both did well ➞ exposure to novel objects & complexity helped performance
* restricted envir: neither did well ➞ overall effect of being kept in a barren envir
* ex: impaired cognition
* ex: B style & cross-fostering ➞ prairie voles adopted the B of their adoptive parents
* diff in time spent licking/grooming in “helicopter-parents” vs “free-range” parents
* young voles adopt B they grew up with rather than those of bio parents

Question 19

characteristics of B shaped by genetics

Answer 19

• innate
• reflexes
• constant in form across all species
• does not need to be acquired by practice
• all indiv of species can exhibit B despite envir
• depends on internal envir
• essential for survival: B that have higher fitness
• constant over lifetime

Question 20

characteristics of B shaped by envir

Answer 20

• acquired from experience
• involves learning (training)
• envir stimuli
• adaptable: capable of modification to changing conditions
• progressive: subject to improvement or refinement (motor movements)

Question 21

Beak-pecking in baby herring gulls

Answer 21

chxs peck on red spot on adult’s beak so they can regurgitate food
* chx pecked red pencil over beaks ➞ from birth, not shown by adults ➞ genetics = predominate force
* evidence fo genetics:
- happens immediately after hatching
* performed in same way each time by all
* essential for survival
* inflexible
* evidence for envir:
* sensitive to changes in envir: more red = more peck

Question 22

litter box use

Answer 22

• anything they can cover ➞ hides scent from predators or competitors
• dominant cat will not cover ➞ mark area
• cats will “bury” when nothing to bury
• abandoned/feral kitten don’t full cover (not around other cats)
• evidence fo genetics:
  
  • early in life
  • anti-predator & anti-competitor
  • behavioral sequence of covering
  • most cats can exhibit across species
• evidence for envir:
  
  • abandoned kittens only partially cover
  • not consistent in every way (some don’t finish, doesn’t look right)
  • motor patterns depend on social status: dom vs subordinates)
  • imprinting on particulat textures in certain envir

Question 23

dressage in horses

Answer 23

evidence for genetics evidence for envir
* requires certain physical build & specific gait

evidence for envir:
* takes yrs to train = learning
* foals don’t dance immediately after birth
* changes over time
* subject to improvement
* modify/adapt
* only dance to certain music
* music changes ➞ dancing changes
* involves specific training in response to stimuli

Question 24

pleiotropy

Answer 24

one gene controls multiple characteristics
* fox farm experiment ➞ changes in physical B when tameness was selected for
* ex: Norway mice: black color more tame than agouti ➞ gene for coat color

Question 25

1º sexual characteristics

Answer 25

reproductive organs
* cats reprod organs are mostly internal

Question 26

2° sexual characteristics

Answer 26

traits related to sexual dimorphism: diff in size/appearance between sexes
* ex: color of M ducks vs F
* ex: size of M elephant seals vs F

Question 27

mating systems

Answer 27

monogamy: 1M, 1F
* social monogamy: 1M 1F that associate as pair but can reprod with others➞ share food/territory/resources, etc
* ex: tree swallows
* ex: california mouse
* sexual monogamy: sexual B restricted exclusively to pair ➞ associate together & only mate w/ each other
* ex: penguins

polygamy: >1 reprod partner
* polyandry: 1F multiple M
* rare
* F are dom: ex: honebees
* F guard resources ➞ ex: jacanas
* sexual dimorphism: ➞ex rhinebeck spiders
* polygyny: 1M multiple F
* very common
* mammals, birds, reptiles
* promiscuity: both polyandry & polygamy
* highly social animals
* best for domestication
* ex: wolves = monogamous, dogs = promiscuous
* ex: wild geese = seasonally monogamous, dom geese = promiscuous

Question 28

benefits of monogamy

Answer 28

1. allows for pred avoidance: ex: Rhinoceros hornbill live inside large tree cavity, F & hatchlings stay camouflaged inside while M collects food
2. protection: males guard females after mating ➞ ex: prairie voles
   
   • F can only produce 1 offspring per cycle ➞ no increased benefit to mating with multiple M
   • when M unleashed, F mated with partner but when M were leashed, 55% F mated with non-partner
3. reproductive success for males:
   
   • paired M mate more often & fathered more embryos than single M
   • ex: prarie voles
4. selective advantage: ex: M emperor penguins incubate eggs while F go forage ➞ M = larger ➞ keep egg warmer & better protection for egg from harsh extraordinarily extreme envir & other M

Question 29

female mate choice

Answer 29

1. direct benefits: essential resources = food/water, shelter, nest/denning sites, protection from pred or other M, offspring care (main reason)
2. good genes: M pass down fitness advantage to offspring: healthier, stronger, better survival skills
   * ex: European tree frog: M w/ healthy strong offspring reproduce more
   * ex: roosters’ combs signify reproductive quality: F did not want to mate with M b/c of shape of his comb ➞ signified lower sperm motility = lower reprod output/success
   * strong evolutionary component that F can sense somehow
3. sensory bias exploration: 2º sexual trait of M matches pre-existing F preference
   * ex: cichlid fish F have affinity for how eggs look ➞ M developed spots on fin that look like eggs
   * ex: F prefer larger fluffs in M auklet birds
   * ex: F prefer lower frequency voices in M tungara frogs
   * ex: F have affinity for UV light ➞ prefer large claws that reflect UV light in M Fiddler crabs
   * ex: F prefer shinier bodies of guppies
4. runaway selection: F choose M based on exaggerated traits that have not been linked to increased survivability
   * could potentially put M at greater risk of death in many cases & does not improve fitness
   * * sexy son hypothesis: females choose mates with “most sexy” trait that offspring can inherit
   * ex: peacocks’ plumes getting larger & more decorative ➞ heavier to carry & slows them down ➞ will eventually be unable to reproduce b/c of sheer mass
   * ex: M long-tailed widowbirds have higher reprod success with longer tails
   potentially detrimental to survival ➞ slower, heavier tail, more for predators to catch onto

Question 30

F choose mating partners b/c

Answer 30

1. female mate choice
2. male-male competition

Question 31

male-male competition

Answer 31

M compete for access to F
* general rule: bigger/faster = more reprod success
* exception: sneaker males: small M squid struggle to compete w/ large M, but can pretend to be F b/c of size & can pull tentacles in like F do when they’re interested in M then slide ride past M

Question 32

polygyny = most common in domestic animals b/c

Answer 32

1. producers like to know genetic lines
2. need many offspring to support demand ➞ monogamy would require too many animals to maintain
   3.** 1 M can father many F** ➞ less animas to maintain
3. bulls are very aggressive ➞ fewer on farm is safer

Question 33

events of reproduction

Answer 33

puberty: age at which reprod organs become fx
* ex: dogs ≈ 7-10mo

**estrous cycle **(F): repetitive cycle occurring when no pregnancy of rising hormones & follicle development
* estrus = “heat”; fertility window
* species-specific & dependent on gestation length
* varies across species in age & duration
* ex: tight window of duration for cows

Question 34

sexual behavior process

Answer 34

1. advertisement of receptibility
   * swollen vulva
   * mucous discharge
   * restless B
   * female receptivity: F perform mimic mating B even when no males present (some never been around males)
   
   • mounting: F cows will mount each other
   • lordosis: raised rear end (displaying rear prominently)
   • ex: cats
   • ex: in swine ➞ boars softly grunt, chews & spits saliva containing androstenone, sows who are in heat will stand so that they can be mounted by the boar
   • B reflects internal hormone status
   • producers use standing B to test for estrus: push down on F back
   • flehmen response: horses/cats/dogs have olfactory bulbs & vomeronasal organs that can detect pheromones in F that are in estrus
2. courtship behavior
   * for M: strut, physical contact, vocalization ➞ ex: horses & turkeys
   * for F: investigate, lordosis
3. mating behavior
4. libido: external stimuli

Question 35

breeding systems in domestic animals

Answer 35

• multi-sire: group of M placed with group of F
  
  • ink pack marks which ewes have copulated & which were not interested ➞ tells producers which ewes need to be checked/tested & timeline ➞ tracking
  • ex: rangeland sheep
• single-sire: one M placed with group of F
  
  • common for aggressive male
  • ex: bulls & beef cattle
  • ex: chx
  • very efficient ➞ less animals to manage & know genetics (M fathered all)
• hand-controlled: 1 M given access to 1 F
  
  • no Q about genetics of an
  • ex: stallion & mare
• artificial insemination: multi or single-sire semen
  
  • not always safe to keep boar/bull around
  • most efficient
  • ex: sows & dairy cattle

Question 36

factors affecting sexual B

Answer 36

• libido:
  
  • F isn’t being very receptive, isn’t giving info to M
  • M isn’t noticing
  • hormonal issue: testosterone levels off in M, F didn’t go into heat
  • performance:
  • indiv not engaging in appropriate species B
  • F not impressed
  • copulation itself
    
    • ex: turtle tried to mount F but completely wrong way/area ➞ don’t do it right or don’t know how to do it
    • ex: broiler chx too big ➞ cannot physically mount

Question 37

reproductive problems from captivity

Answer 37

1.** relaxed selection** : selection for physical traits not libido ➞ ex: stallions selected for racing/muscles/appearance have poor libido (directional)
2. unintentional selection: humans may avoid handling M who are more aggressive like preferentially breed docile M ➞ aggression level positively correlated w/ reprod success ➞ breeding animals w/ low reprod success (no direction)
3. artificial selection: traits interfere w/ sexual performance
* ex: english bulldogs ➞ can’t birth babes large heads
* ex: american bullies cant mount F b/c of musculature
* ex: chx cant mount F b/c of large breast size & body weight

4. inappropriate rearing conditions: in prod systems early weaning results in young animals kept in same-age & sex groups ➞ influence on B depends on species-specific natural social structure
   
   • ex: boar reared alone = detrimental, reared in M groups = normal
   • ex: ram reared alone = normal, reared in M groups = detrimental ➞ prefer other M over ewes & have fewer ejaculations in general
   • ex: bull reared alone = normal, reared in M groups = normal

Question 38

solutions to reproductive problems from captivity

Answer 38

1. artificial selection: sexual performance is often heritable
   
   • ex: sex performance in bulls is very heritable
   • ex: performance in rams is not very heritable
     2. manipulate rearing envir: duration & timing of isolation
     *ex: M guinea pigs
     3. restore libido
     
     • Coolidge effect: novel copulation changing how many F producers offer males ➞ M that reprod with diff F have shorter ejaculation time than same F
     • spectator effect: observe copulation ➞ works for bulls
       does not wok for ram

Question 39

unconscious evolutionary trends in parental care

Answer 39

• parent-offspring conflict: mother wants to maximize lifetime reprod success, must survive & invest in future offspring, offspring wants to survive easily depend on mom as long as possible
• balance of parental care costs:
  
  • initially: weight of survival is so heavy for current offspring ➞ invest all resources
  • at some species-dependent point, investing resources in current kid (when it doesn’t need them) puts mother’s survival at risk & threatens her future kids

Question 40

dam

Answer 40

mother

Question 41

sire

Answer 41

father

Question 42

gestation

Answer 42

development fetus from conception

Question 43

parturition

Answer 43

birth
* cattle = calving
* swine = farrowing
* sheep = lambing
* horses = foaling
* goats = kidding
* dogs = whelping
* cats = queening

Question 44

parity

Answer 44

having borne offspring
* how many litters produced as way to gauge age
* nulliparous: never had offspring
* primiparous: 1st time having offspring
* multiparous: having born multiple litters/offspring

Question 45

monotocous vs
polytocous

Answer 45

monotocous: one young

polytocous: many young

Question 46

development of offspring at birth

Answer 46

altricial: requires much maternal care/investment
* “requires nourishment” ➞ squishy, blind, nude
* deficient in motor control & temp regulation
* large energy investment
* polytocous small mammals
* ex: rats, cats, dogs
* tree-nesting birds
* hawk, owl, woodpecker
* need central resource point
* evolutionary ➞ fewer predators

precocial: much more developed
* “mature before its time”
* more motor & sensory development
* young can feed themselves almost immediately
* monotocous ungulates
* caves, lamb, kids
* ground-nesting birds
* penguins, domestic poultry, ducks
* less energy investment
* shorter gestation

Question 47

maternal B timeline

Answer 47

1. nesting
   * isolation preference test: cows prefer isolation during day but no difference at night
   
   • visual isolation from predators ➞ evolutionary component
   • night darkness gives protection
2. responsiveness
   * sensitive period: discrete length of time when B is acquired = start of bonding formation
   * ex: learning song style for songbirds
   * lamb-stealing for commercial shepherds ➞ abandoned animals must be bottle-fed
   * responsiveness to amniotic fluid/placenta: immediately following parturition dams are highly attracted to amniotic fluid/placenta stimulates grooming on neonates ➞ repulsive after sensitive period
   * ex: multiparous cows are quicker to lick newborns than primiparous or nulliparous
3. discrimination: investing all her energy in her young only ➞ bonding
   * sight & sound: imprinting: newly hatched hatched birds learn to distinguish shape/sound of mother & follow them
   
   • only during sensitive period
   • offspring discrimination towards older indiv ➞ provides protection that helps young survive (NS)
   • imprinting on each other selected against ➞ no protection
   • common w/ altricial species
     
     • sight & sound: broiler chicks in hatchery are raised in social groups (same age), no hens
   • chx = precocial ➞ altricial birds cannot be domesticated ➞ requires too much human care ➞ takes too long & too $$
   • smell in goats: normal nannies would not accept diff looking kid while anosmic nannies would ➞ sight = most important scent

Question 48

entrainment

Answer 48

internal rhythm re-sets to match external stimuli

Question 49

polyestrous

Answer 49

continuous breeders
* seasonal polyestrous: multiple cycles within a season
* timed for external cues to change internal hormones for best fitness: best resources for survival
* far N has much bigger diff in day length/season/temp than S
* producers must know cycle/effects of location
* sheep:
* anovulatory in summer (too long days = too hot)
* breeding during fall (↓ day length)
* pregnant during winter (cold temp not fit for lamb survival)
* lambing during spring (↑ day length, best resources for lambs)

Question 49

polyestrous

Answer 49

continuous breeders
* seasonal polyestrous: multiple cycles within a season
* timed for external cues to change internal hormones for best fitness: best resources for survival
* short day: south = march-may, north = april-november
* ewe
* nanny
* doe (shorter days in fall)
* long-day: south = april-november, north = march-may
* horses
* quail
* sheep:
*

Question 50

circadian rhythms & species

Answer 50

diurnal: active in day, inactive at night
* humans, goats, cows, sheep, poultry
* social
* herbivores

nocturnal: active in night, inactive in day
* owls, bats, large cats, racoons, mice
* prey avoiding predators ➞ hazy = harder to see
* predators adapted to prey ➞ adapted auditory senses

crepuscular: active at dawn/dusk, inactive during day/night
* swine, wolves, domesticated dogs/cats, deer, rabbits
* swine have no sweat glands ➞ way to regulate temp
* domestic pigs fed 1x (morning) on human work schedule & spend a lot more time resting than in wild ➞ can interfere with evolution
* supposed to sleep a lot
* most active at night ➞ wild prey most active at night (mice)