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Life Sciences > DNA: The code of life > Flashcards

DNA: The code of life Flashcards

1
Q

Where do cells carry out various cellular activities?

A

Within the cytoplasm

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2
Q

What is the main thing that happens during cellular activities?

A

Useful substances such as water and nutrients enter the cell from the outside

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3
Q

What is removed from the cells?

A

Waste products

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4
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

A water solution that consists of a mixture of substances .

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5
Q

What substances does the cytoplasm contain?

A 
dissolved salts
gases
proteins
carbohydrates
suspended fats
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6
Q

What are suspended in the cytoplasm of a cell?

A

cell organelles

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7
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

small, granular organelles

occur in rows on the surface of rough ER (endoplasmic reticulum) or in groups in the cytoplasm.

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8
Q

What is a ribosome made of?

A

RNA and Protein

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9
Q

What is the site of protein synthesis?

A

a ribosome

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10
Q

What is the control centre of the cell?

A

The nucleus

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11
Q

What activities does the nucleus control?

A

synthesis of proteins

transmits hereditary information into daughter cells during cell division

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12
Q

What surrounds the nucleus?

A

a double nuclear membrane with nuclear pores

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13
Q

What do the pores in the double nuclear membrane surrounding the nucleus do?

A

allow substances to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

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14
Q

What is nucleoplasm?

A

jelly-like substance that fills the nucleus

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15
Q

What does the chromatin network form during cell division?

A

chromosomes

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16
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

the round thing inside the nucleus

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17
Q

What is the nucleolus composed of?

A

protein and RNA

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18
Q

What does RNA stand for?

A

ribonucleic acid

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19
Q

What is the stored RNA (in the nucleolus) involved in?

A

synthesis of proteins within the cell

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20
Q

What is the membrane which surrounds an animal cell called?

A

cell membrane

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21
Q

What are biological molecules that are essential for all life forms?

A

nucleic acids

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22
Q

What do nucleic acids include?

A

DNA and RNA

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23
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

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24
Q

What does DNA make up?

A

the genes located on chromosomes

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25
Q

What is formed in the nucleus but funcitons in the cytoplasm?

A

RNA

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26
Q

Where is RNA formed?

A

in the nucleus

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27
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

polymers

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28
Q

What are polymers made of?

A

smaller, similar building blocks called monomers

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29
Q

What are the monomers of nucleic acids called?

A

nucleotides

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30
Q

What three parts is one nucleotide made up of?

A

P (phosphate group)
S (sugar)
N (nitrogenous base)

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31
Q

Where does most DNA occur?

A

In the nucleus

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32
Q

What is DNA that occurs in the nucleus called?

A

nuclear DNA

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33
Q

What is DNA would around?

A

protein molecules called histones

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34
Q

What is a histone?

A

the protein molecule that DNA is wound around

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35
Q

What forms a chromosome that makes up part of the chromatin network?

A

DNA and histones

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36
Q

Does any DNA occur outside the nucleus?

A

Yes. But only small amounts

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37
Q

What is DNA that occurs outside the nucleus called?

A

extra-nuclear DNA

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38
Q

Where does extra-nuclear DNA occur?

A

outside the nucleus:
In the mitochondria
In the chloroplast

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39
Q

What is DNA that occurs in the mitochondria called?

A

mitochondrial DNA

This is extra-nuclear DNA

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40
Q

What is DNA that occurs in the chloroplast called?

A

Chloroplast DNA

This is extra-nuclear DNA

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41
Q

Who took many X-ray photographs of DNA?

A

Rosalind Franklin

These showed the double helix structure of DNA but she did not realise it

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42
Q

Who showed one of the X-ray photographs to Watson and Crick without Franklin’s permission?

A

Maurice Wilkins

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43
Q

Who formulated the double-helix structure of DNA with the aid of a 3D model?

A

Watson and Crick

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44
Q

What is the journal that Watson and Crick published their findings in?

A

Nature

This happened while they were working at the Cavendish Institute in Cambridge

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45
Q

What is the journal that Franklin and Gosling published a paper in?

A

Nature

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46
Q

What was the name of the journal that Maurice Wilkins published a paper in?

A

Nature

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47
Q

Which three parties all published a paper in the same issue of Nature all showing the double helix structure of DNA?

A

Watson and Crick
Franklin and Gosling
Wilkins

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48
Q

Who received a Nobel Prize for discovering the molecular structure of DNA?

A

Watson and Crick in 1962

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49
Q

When was Nature published which showed the structure of DNA by three different parties?

A

1953

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50
Q

Who was the first director of the Human Genome Project?

A

Watson

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51
Q

When did scientists first map the human genome in its entirety?

A

2003

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52
Q

What is the structure of DNA?

A

It is a double-stranded molecule that forms a double helix

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53
Q

What type of sugar does DNA contain?

A

Deoxyribose sugar

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54
Q

What are the four types of nitrogenous bases that DNA contains?

A

adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine

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55
Q

What forms pairs in the DNA molecule?

A

nitrogenous bases

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56
Q

What type of bonds hold the nitrogenous bases found in DNA molecules?

A

weak hydrogen bonds

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57
Q

What forms a long chain in a DNA molecule?

A

The sugar and phosphate group

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58
Q

What is often regarded as the ‘backbone’ of a DNA molecule?

A

The long chain of sugar and phosphate group

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59
Q

At what angle are the nitrogenous bases attached to the ‘backbone chain’ of the DNA molecule?

A

At right angles

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60
Q

What are the main functions of DNA?

A
  • contains the genetic instructions to make different proteins in the body
  • maintains the structure of the chromosomes
  • regulates the function of genes
  • regulates protein synthesis
  • enables hereditary material to be passed from parent to offspring
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61
Q

What are a good sample to extract DNA from?

A

Peas or onions

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62
Q

How do you extract DNA from a sample?

A
  • break open cells using dishwashing liquid and salt
  • Add meat tenderiser
  • purify DNA with ice-cold alcohol
  • DNA will float to top
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63
Q

Why must you use dishwashing liquid and salt to extract DNA?

A

This breaks up the cells which allows you to get to the DNA

64
Q

Why must you add meat tenderiser to extract DNA from a sample?

A

This contains protease enzymes which breaks down the proteins around the DNA

65
Q

Why do you purify the DNA with ice-cold alcohol when extracting DNA from a sample?

A

DNA is insoluble in alcohol so it floats to the top

66
Q

What is DNA replication?

A

The process whereby DNA makes an identical copy of itself

67
Q

Where does DNA replication take place?

A

In the nucleus

68
Q

When does DNA replication take place?

A

During interphase - just before cell division

69
Q

What are all processes of DNA replication controlled by?

A

All stages of the process are controlled by specific enzymes

70
Q

Explain, in five brief steps, how DNA replication takes place

A
  • unwinding
  • separation
  • assembly
  • bonding
  • rewinding
71
Q

What does a DNA molecule look like when it has unwound?

A

Like a ladder

72
Q

How do the nitrogenous bases separate during the DNA replication process?

A

the weak hydrogen bonds break

Enzyme used: DNA helicase

73
Q

What enzyme is used when the nitrogenous bases separate in the process of DNA replication?

A

DNA helicase

74
Q

Does the whole length of the DNA strand separate during DNA replication?

75
Q

What does each strand of DNA become once separated in the DNA replication process?

A

A template to form a new strand on each

76
Q

Where do free DNA nucleotides come from which attach to the exposed complementary bases on the DNA strands during the DNA replication process?

A

From the nucleoplasm

77
Q

Each new DNA molecule consists of one ___ strand and one ___ strand

A

original and new

78
Q

Are the two DNA molecules produced in the DNA replication process identical?

79
Q

What is the shape of a wound up DNA ladder-shaped molecule?

A

double helix

80
Q

What enzyme is involved in the assembly of the two identical DNA molecules formed during DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase

81
Q

What enzyme is involved in the winding up of the two new DNA ladder-shaped molecules formed during DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase

82
Q

Why is DNA replication important?

A
  • Each daughter cell produced during meiosis has identical genetic make-up to the parent cell.
  • Ensures that the number of chromosomes in each daughter cell is the same as in the parent cell.
  • Ensures that genetic information is transferred from one generation to the next.
83
Q

Define DNA profiling

A

The use of a person’s DNA to identify them or to trace the genetic relationships between people

84
Q

What two things can be done with DNA profiling?

A

identify people

trace genetic relationships

85
Q

Where is DNA extracted from in DNA profiling?

A

From a body tissue or body fluid (e.g. blood, skin, saliva)

86
Q

What is DNA profiling also known as?

A

DNA fingerprinting

87
Q

What does a genetic profile (genetic fingerprint) look like?

A

A pattern of black bars left on X-ray film that shows the unique DNA of the person

88
Q

What diseases can DNA profiling be used to detect?

A

Genetic disorders such as:
haemophilia
sickle cell anaemia

89
Q

What can be used to confirm a person as a suspect in a crime?

A

DNA evidence

90
Q

In what situations can DNA profiling (or fingerprinting) be used to identify relatives?

A
  • To determine the father of a child
  • To help parents find a missing child
  • To identify a body that cannot be identified after death
91
Q

What are some reasons that people have to not rely on DNA fingerprinting (or DNA profiling)

A
  • only short DNA strands are used
  • chance of human error
  • expensive
  • some DNA labs may not follow correct procedure
  • DNA profiling could reveal confidential info (HIV status)
92
Q

What type of acid is RNA?

A

A nucleic acid

93
Q

What does RNA do?

A

carries genetic information from DNA in nucleus to parts of the cell where it is needed

94
Q

What does RNA play a vital role in?

A

protein synthesis

95
Q

Is RNA more stable that DNA?

A

No. RNA is less stable than DNA and breaks down easily.

96
Q

What happens once RNA has completed its function (normally in protein synthesis)?

A

It breaks down

97
Q

What are the monomers of RNA?

A

nucleotides

98
Q

What is the sugar in RNA called?

A

Ribose sugar

99
Q

What four different nitrogenous bases are used in RNA

A

adenine
uracil
guanine
cytosine

100
Q

In RNA, ___ replaces the nitrogenous base ___ found in DNA

A

uracil replaces thymine

101
Q

Are there base pairs in RNA?

A

No as RNA is single stranded

102
Q

What three types of RNA are there?

A

Messenger RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA

103
Q

Where is mRNA formed?

A

in the nucleus

104
Q

Where does mRNA move to from the nucleus?

A

moves out of the nucleus to attach to the ribosome in the cytoplasm

105
Q

What is the function of mRNA?

A

It copies the genetic code for a specific protein from the DNA and carries it to the ribosome in the cytoplasm

106
Q

What is the function of rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)?

A

It combines with other molecules to form the ribosomes in the cytoplasm which are the site of protein synthesis

107
Q

Where is tRNA found?

A

In the cytoplasm

108
Q

What is the function of tRNA?

A
  • It carries amino acids to the mRNA on the ribosome

- arranges them in the correct order according to the code of the mRNA

109
Q

DNA and RNA both contain ___ alternating with ___

A

sugar alternating with phosphate

110
Q

What nitrogenous bases do DNA and RNA both contain?

A

adenine
guanine
cytosine

111
Q

What do DNA and RNA both play a role in?

A

protein synthesis

112
Q

What shape is RNA?

A

single stranded

113
Q

Where is DNA found?

A

nucleus
chloroplast
mitrochondria

114
Q

Where is RNA found?

A

nucleus

cytoplasm

115
Q

What types of RNA play an important role is protein synthesis?

A

All three types of RNA

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

116
Q

When does protein synthesis occur?

A

When there is a need for a specific protein

117
Q

What stages happens in protein synthesis?

A

transcription

translation

118
Q

Briefly, what happens during the transcription stage of protein synthesis?

A

the mRNA copies the genetic code of a specific protein from a section of the DNA molecule

119
Q

Briefly, what happens during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process

A

the genetic code of the mRNA is translated into a protein

120
Q

Where in the cell does transcription take place?

A

in the nucleus

121
Q

What does transcribe mean?

122
Q

How are mRNA strands transcribed?

A

with the help of an enzyme

123
Q

New mRNA sequences are ___ to their DNA template

A

complementary

124
Q

Does the whole DNA unwind in the transcription process of protein synthesis?

A

No only a small section of DNA containing the protein unwinds to its ladder shape.

125
Q

What happens when the DNA strands unzip in the transcription process of protein synthesis?

A

The weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen bases break

This is controlled by an enzyme

126
Q

In what part of the transcription processs of protein synthesis is an enzyme required?

A

When the two DNA strands unzip

127
Q

Are both (unzipped) strands of DNA in the transcription process of protein synthesis used to form mRNA

A

No. one strand is used as a template to form mRNA.

128
Q

Where are free RNA nucleotides in the cell found?

A

In the nucleoplasm

129
Q

What happens to the free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm in the transcription stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

The free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm pair with the nucleotides on the exposed ‘template’ DNA strand to form the mRNA.

130
Q

The mRNA is ___ to the DNA

A

complementary

131
Q

What happens once the free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm pair with the nucleotides on the DNA?

A

The mRNA strand separates from the DNA

132
Q

What do three adjacent bases on the mRNA make up?

133
Q

What codes for an amino acid?

134
Q

What moves out of the nucleus through the nucleopores during the transcription phase of the protein synthesis process?

135
Q

What happens once the mRNA has moved out of the nucleopores during the transcription process of the protein synthesis process?

A

The two strands of DNA join and return to their double-stranded helical shape

136
Q

Once the newly-formed mRNA has left the nucleus and moved into the cytoplasm, where does it go during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

It attaches itself to the surface of a ribosome

137
Q

How is the mRNA positioned when the mRNA has attached itself to the surface of a ribosome during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

The nitrogen bases of the mRNA strand are exposed

138
Q

What are three exposed bases on a tRNA collectively called?

A

an anticodon

139
Q

The anticodons are ___ to the codons on the mRNA

A

complementary

140
Q

What collects free-floating amino acids in the cytoplasm?

A

The tRNA molecules, as determined by their anticodons

141
Q

Where do the tRNA molecules move during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

the tRNA molecules move to the ribosome where the mRNA strands are attached

142
Q

What happens once the tRNA molecules move to the ribosome during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

The anticodon of the tRNA links with the codon on the mRNA

143
Q

What allows the amino acids to be in a certain order to form a specific protein?

A

The tRNA molecules place the amino acids in a certain order when the anticodon of the tRNA links with the codon on the mRNA

144
Q

Where does the ribosome move during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

Along the full length of the mRNA strand

145
Q

What type of bonds are used to link amino acids together during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

peptide bonds

146
Q

Where are enzymes required during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

When the amino acids link together by means of peptide bonds

147
Q

What happens once the tRNA molecules have released their amino acids during the translation stage of the protein synthesis process?

A

the tRNA molecules move back into the cytoplasm where they can pick up more amino acids to carry to the ribosomes

148
Q

How many amino acids is a protein composed of?

A

50 or more amino acids

149
Q

How are the amino acids making up a protein arranged?

A

in the order that corresponds to the order of codons on the mRNA strand

150
Q

Does DNA usually replicate accurately?

A

Yes, but sometimes, there are copying errors

151
Q

What results from a copying error in DNA replication?

A

The wrong nucleotide or too many nucleotides being inserted into a sequence

152
Q

How can most replication mistakes in DNA be repaired?

A

by DNA repair processes that are brought about by repair enzymes

153
Q

What happens if some replication errors are not detected and corrected?

A

They can become permanent mutations.

154
Q

What can mutations lead to?

A

genetic problems

cancer

155
Q

If occasional copying errors are useful, what does this enable the species to do?

A

this enables a species to adapt, which helps the organisms survive

156
Q

What can increase genetic variation within a species

Life Sciences (7 decks)

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