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Pathological Mechanisms > Disorders of Growth and Cancer > Flashcards

Disorders of Growth and Cancer Flashcards

1
Q

What are the possible causes. of developmental anomalies?

A

Genetic mutations, chromosomal aberrations, teratogens, environmental factors (smoking / alcohol)

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2
Q

What is the difference between congenital anomalies and developmental anomalies?

A

Developmental anomalies are a subset of congenital anomalies.
Congenital anomalies exist at or before birth and may be either function / metabolic or structural.
Developmental anomalies is deformity, absence or excess of body parts / tissues which occur when normal growth is disturbed and cause a structural problem

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3
Q

Give an example of a syndrome which predisposes to a ventricular septal defect.

A

Down syndrome

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4
Q

Ventricular septal defects are usually symptomless at birth. T/F?

A

True.

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5
Q

If a ventricular septal defect is uncorrected, how can this lead to cyanosis?

A

If uncorrected, the defect can increase pulmonary resistance and lead to the reversal of the shunt which causes mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the left ventricle and so not all of the blood being pumped into the systemic circulation is oxygenated which results in cyanosis

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6
Q

What are the possible symptoms of spina bifida?

A

Muscle weakness or paralysis, bowel and bladder problems, seizures, orthopaedic problems (deformed feet, uneven hips, scoliosis), hydrocephalus

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7
Q

What is a hamartoma?

A

A malformation which may resemble a neoplasm which results from faulty growth in an organ

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8
Q

What is a hamartoma composed of?

A

A mixture of mature tissue elements which would normally be found at that site which develop and grow at the same rate as the surrounding tissue

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9
Q

What is a chondroid hamartoma?

A

A benign lung lesion which may be seen as a ‘coin lesion’ on CXR and can mimic malignancy, composed of epithelium, cartilage, fat and smooth muscle

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10
Q

Hamartomas are benign. T/F?

A

True

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11
Q

What is an ectopia?

A

Abnormal location or position of an organ or a tissue, most often occurring congenitally but can occur as a result of injury

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12
Q

What is diverticulum?

A

A circumscribed pouch or sac caused by herniation of the lining of the mucosa of an organ through a defect in the muscular coat

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13
Q

Give examples of diverticulum

A

Meckel’s diverticulum
Sigmoid colon diverticula
Diverticular disease

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14
Q

Describe Meckel’s diverticulum

A

A congenital anomaly which is two inches long and present at the terminal ileum. A blind ended duct that is a remnant of the yolk sac which failed to involute. Often contains ectopic pancreatic or gastric tissue.

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15
Q

How can diverticulum cause large bowel obstruction?

A

If there is chronic inflammation of the diverticulum then there will be fibrosis which in turn will cause hypertrophy of the muscle which can exacerbate the problem and lead to stenosis and large bowel obstruction

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16
Q

What are the possible complications of Meckel’s diverticulum?

A 
Inflammation
Bleeding
perforation
obstruction
intussusception
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17
Q

What is intussusception?

A

Where part of the intestine folds into the part directly ahead of it

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18
Q

What condition can inflammation of Meckel’s diverticulum mimic?

A

Appendicitis

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19
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

The increase in the size of cells due to increased synthesis of structural proteins and organelles and therefore increase in the size of the organ

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20
Q

Hypertrophy is always pathological. T/F?

A

False

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21
Q

Give examples of when hypertrophy can occur physiologically.

A

Due to increased functional demand e.g. when building muscle due to increased exercise
By hormonal stimulation

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22
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

The increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue

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23
Q

In what physiological scenarios is hyperplasia necessary?

A

In connective tissue in response to wound healing

Due to hormonal stimulation such as the normal proliferation of the endometrium during the menstrual cycle

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24
Q

Give an example of a condition in which hyperplasia is pathological.

A

BPH

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25
Q

What is atrophy?

A

The shrinkage in the size or numbers of the cell by the loss of the cell substance

26
Q

What can cause atrophy?

A 
Loss of innervation
Diminished blood supply
Inadequate nutrition
Decreased workload
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Aging
27
Q

What is metaplasia?

A

The reversible change from one fully differentiated cell type into another

28
Q

Give two common examples of metaplasia

A

Change from normal ciliated columnar epithelial cells in trachea and bronchi to stratified squamous in cigarette smokers
Change from stratified squamous epithelium of lower oesophagus to gastric columnar epithelium in chronic gastric reflux

29
Q

What is neoplasia?

A

A new growth, an abnormal tissue mass, the growth of which is excessive and uncoordinated compared to adjacent tissue

30
Q

Neoplasia persists even after the cessation of the stimuli which caused it. T/F?

A

True

31
Q

Neoplasms are always malignant. T/F?

A

False - they can be benign or malignant

32
Q

All neoplasms cause swelling. T/F?

A

False - neoplasms such as leukaemia or lymphoma don’t cause swelling as they are cancers of the blood

33
Q

What are the characteristics of a benign neoplasm?

A

Grows without invading adjacent tissue or spreading to distant sites
Usually well circumscribed

34
Q

Bengin tumours usually end with the suffix -oma. What are the exception to this?

A

Sarcoma
Melanoma
Lymphoma

35
Q

Carcinomas are malignant tumours of what origin?

A

Epithelial

36
Q

Sarcomas are malignant tumours of what origin?

A

Mesenchymal

37
Q

Melanomas are malignant tumours of what origin?

A

Melanocytic

38
Q

Lymphomas are malignant tumours of what origin?

A

Haematopoietic

39
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘lipo’ refer to?

A

Fat

40
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘rhabdo’ refer to?

A

Skeletal muscle

41
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘leio’ refer to?

A

Smooth muscle

42
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘adeno’ refer to?

A

Gland

43
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘mining’ refer to?

A

Meninges

44
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘angio’ refer to?

A

Vascular

45
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘osteo’ refer to?

A

Bone

46
Q

When naming tumours what does ‘chondro’ refer to?

A

Cartilage

47
Q

Well differentiated tumours resemble identifiable tissue types. T/F?

A

True

48
Q

Undifferentiated tumours do not resemble anything and as such what might be needed to elucidate where it came form?

A

ICC

49
Q

As tumours become more poorly differentiated, the lower. the grade becomes. T/F?

A

False - the higher the grade becomes

50
Q

What factors determine the stage of a tumour?

A

Size of primary tumour
Extent of invasion into surrounding tissue
Spread to regional lymph nodes
Absence of metastases

51
Q

The grade of a tumour refers to how far it has spread. T/F?

A

False - this is the stage of a tumour, the grade describe how well differentiated the tumour is

52
Q

What is the highest possible stage of a tumour?

A

Stage IV

53
Q

What is anaplasia?

A

Lack of differentiation in a tumour

54
Q

What is dysplasia?

A

Disordered growth in which cells fail to differentiate fully but are contained by the basement membrane

55
Q

What changes occur in a dysplastic cell?

A

Hyperchromatic
Nuclear membrane becomes irregular
Nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio increases

56
Q

A carcinoma in situ has partial-thickness epithelial dysplasia from the basement membrane to the surface of the epithelium. T/F?

A

False - it is full thickness

57
Q

If the entire epithelial neoplasm is no more advanced than the basement membrane, then the risk of metastasis at this point in time is…?

A

0

58
Q

In what type of cancers is lymphatic spread common?

A

Carcinomas

59
Q

In what type of cancers is haematogenous spread common?

A

Sarcomas

60
Q

In what type fo cancer is transcoelomic spread common?

A

Ovarian carcinomas

Gastric carcinomas

61
Q

How can metastases present?

A 
Multiple skin lesions
CNS symptoms
Breathlessness / haemoptysis (lungs)
jauncice/masses (liver)
pathological fracture (bone)
enlarged lymph nodes
62
Q

What are the possible local effects of metastases?

A 
Occupation of space
pressure effects
local destruction
ulceration/bleeding leading to anaemia
induced stroll reaction/fibrosis/stenosis/obstruction
pain

Pathological Mechanisms (10 decks)

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