Developmental psych Flashcards

Question

What are the stages of Human Figure Drawings?

Answer 1

○ 2 years - Scribbling ○ 3 years - Start to draw person (no torso - arms and legs out of head) ○ 4 years - More details: accessories, clothes ○ 6 years - More spatial - draw what they know about something instead of what they see ○ 8 -10 years - Start to recognise depth and represent object/person as it appears in front of them

Answer 2

- Uniform way of comparing cognitive performance - Excellent predictors of academic achievement - Identifies strengths and weaknesses and can create individualised learning plans - Remains fairly consistent with age - relatively stable over the years --> testing same cognitive abilities each time - Teachers, parents, psychologists are able to devise individual curriculum matching a person's development and expectations

Answer 3

- A single score is often inadequate in explaining multidimensional aspects of intelligence - Does not capture the complexity and immediacy of real-life situations □ Sometimes the items are timed for no clear reason - if the timing was more necessary and relevant to the task (ie escaping a room), people could perform within the time limit - Influences such as physical/emotional stability, limited experiences, unfamiliarity with language

Answer 4

○ As part of comprehensive psycho-educational evaluation to aid in the - Identification of intellectual disability (ID) - Identification of specific learning disabilities (SLD) - Identification of intellectual giftedness ○ Determine placement in specialised programs/funding ○ Neuropsychological evaluation ○ Clinical intervention ○ Research

Answer 5

- Verbal comprehension - Visual spatial - Fluid reasoning - Working memory - Processing speed

Answer 6

○ Normally distributed - most scores falling near the mean - 68% of scores fall within 1 standard deviation of mean - 95% fall within 2 standard deviations - Score of 100 given to a child who scores exactly the mean for their age at that time

Answer 7

- IQ scores at different ages are easy to compare despite increase in knowledge accompanying child development - Easy to read the score and understand strengths and weaknesses cognitively

Answer 8

- Predicts future performance - Predicts ability to learn a new skill - Measure a person's potential - Makes achievement possible

Answer 9

- Assesses overall learning accomplishments - Skills children learn through direct intervention - Assess current performance - Areas such as reading, writing, maths

Answer 10

- Difference between results of intelligence and achievement | - Greater difference between results: need to investigate what is going for the child

Answer 11

○ Comprehensive and locally standardised achievement test that - Provides norm referenced information about a student in the four main areas of achievement - Covers ages 4:0 through 50:11 (4 years, zero months - 50 years, 11 months) - Follows normal distribution - Provides diagnostic information and recommended interventions

Answer 12

- Sentence composition - Early reading skills - Phonological awareness - Maths problem solving

Answer 13

• Affects a person's ability to 'receive, store, process, retrieve or communicate information • Brain-based disorder linked to neurological differences in brain structure • Can manifest in one or more areas of academic achievement ○ Can be specific to reading, or could be reading and writing deficit • Greatly benefit the use of appropriate adaptations, accommodations, and compensatory strategies ○ Early identification is important

Answer 14

-Child's underachievement is unexpected

Answer 15

• Difficulties learning academic skills - indicated by presence of at least one of following symptoms that have persisted for at least 6 months, despite provision of interventions targeting those difficulties: ○ Inaccurate/slow and effortful word reading ○ Understanding meaning of what is read ○ Spelling ○ Written expression ○ Mastering number sense etc ○ Mathematical reasoning • Affected academic skills are substantially below those expected for their age - cause significant interference with academic or occupational performance • Learning difficulty began during schooling age • Not better accounted for by intellectual disabilities, other neurological disorders, lack of proficiency in language or academic instruction, or inadequate educational instruction

Answer 16

• Used to compare children based on IQ tests alone • If children were achieving less than within 1 standard deviation of mean IQ score - received diagnosis ○ Ability-achievement discrepancy • Previous methods of identification have failed to adequately distinguish between groups • Advances in cognitive theory and assessment methods assisting with understanding cognitive differences between groups

Answer 17

• Comparison of child's achievement to their full scale IQ using standard assessment ○ Based on assumption that IQ is near-perfect achievement predictor ○ Potential to over/under-diagnose student based on arbitrary cut-offs • Discrepancy between ability and achievement may be statistically significant but not clinically relevant • Discrepancies not normally evident until 3rd or 4th grade • Doesn't consider adequacy of educational instruction • No longer as frequently used

Answer 18

``` • Different way of assessing SLDs • Three common components: ○ Cognitive strength ○ Cognitive weakness ○ Academic weakness ```

Answer 19

* Word Recognition (WR) (/decoding) difficulties: dyslexia * Listening comprehension (LC) difficulties: * Both WR and LC difficulties (less common)

Answer 20

○ Understand text when it is read aloud but have difficulties reading the words ○ Occurs in 5-8% of school age population ○ Neurobiological disorder that causes a marked impairment in development of basic reading and spelling skills ○ Persistent pattern of learning difficulties: - Word-level reading skills - Difficulties decoding (pronouncing printed words) - Difficulties encoding (spelling words) ○ 13 and 14 year olds with reading disorders can correctly identify no more words than typical 7 and 8 year olds ○ Poor phonological recoding skills of children with learning disorders leaves them to have special difficulty with pseudowords that can only be pronounced using phonological recoding - Sounding out the word they haven't seen before - can't rely on visual memory

Answer 21

○ Can read words accurately but cannot comprehend what they read

Answer 22

○ Broca's - semantic processing - Meaning of words ○ Parietotemporal - phonological processing - Sounds of words ○ Occipitotemporal - rapid automatic and fluid identification of words - Integration of sound and print of word: visual familiarity

Answer 23

Broca's, Parietotemporal, and Occipitotemporal areas are under-activated in children with dyslexia when performing reading tasks

Answer 24

``` ○ Letter identification ○ Single letter rhyming ○ Nonword rhyming ○ Real word identification ○ Vocabulary ○ Sentence verification ```

Answer 25

○ Letter-sound associations ○ Pre-planned sequence of letter-sound associations ○ Associations are practiced in text and in isolation

Answer 26

○ Under half were no longer in lowest 10% for spelling ○ 26% were no longer in lowest 10% for pseudo-word decoding ○ For word reading 30% were no longer in lowest 10%

Answer 27

○ Aimed to improve word decoding accuracy and reading comprehension ○ Fluency based method (how fast and accurate they read the words) ○ Assumption: there is a reciprocal relationship between reading speed, accuracy and comprehension -- slow readin = poor reading ○ For children with reading disorders - more brain activity in right hemisphere of brain than with typical readers - brain is compensating for their reading difficulties ○ Following intervention - children with reading disorders' brain activity became more localised - more similar to typical readers and using right hemisphere less - Clear metabolic activity shift from right to left after one month of intervention -Performance in tasks also improved

Answer 28

- Letters are made to look as different as possible to help with letter distinguishing - Changing angling, heights and forms of letters - Kids with dyslexia read better

Answer 29

No: ○ Social construct rather human intervention ○ Will differ depending on cultural values

Answer 30

○ Giftedness denoted by high intelligence ○ Denoted by outstanding accomplishments ○ High potential to excel

Answer 31

``` - Identified through □ General intelligence (g) □ Multiple intelligencies, or □ Neuroanatomical - Recommended program: □ Highly accelerated and/or □ Academically advanced ```

Answer 32

``` - Identified through □ Performance in classroom or □ Performance on academic tasks - Recommended program □ Highly enriched and/or □ Academically challenging ```

Answer 33

``` - Identified through □ Teachers, coaches, others - Recommended program □ Motivating and/or □ Compensatory interventions ```

Answer 34

○ Provides information to support admission to special schools of gifted programs ○ Understand the unique strengths and weaknesses (asynchronies) for an exceptionally bright child ○ Assessing growth in areas such as creativity or critical thinking with implications for curriculum modification ○ Discerning factors potentially contributing to underachievement or low motivation ○ Determining appropriate grade placement

Answer 35

- Positive self-concept - High self-esteem - Motivation and task commitment - Resiliency

Answer 36

- Difficulties connecting with same age peers - Asynchronous development - Label can be stigmatising - Perfectionism

Answer 37

- Nature and nurture (aka language specificity) | - Environment/individual differences

Answer 38

-Brain modularity: ○ Broca's area and Wernicke's area - two main areas that have something to do with language ○ Broca's area: - Appears to have something to do with grammatical processing - Adjacent to the part of the motor control area for jaws, lips, and tongue - Damage to broca's area produces a certain type of aphasia (language difficulty) resulting in stilted, ungrammatical but contentful speech ○ Wernicke's area - Appears to have something to do with meaning and word access - Adjacent to primary auditory area that receives linguistic input - Damage to Wernicke's are produces certain kind of aphasia resulting in fluent speech that is completely lacking in sense - A lot of speech with not much content

Answer 39

○ Many non-linguistic things appear localised in the brain (eg expert piano players) ○ Many aspects of language (such as word concept and meaning) appear to be spread throughout the entire cerebral cortex

Answer 40

○ Commonalities across 'wild children' - Strange gait (often on all fours) - Odd senses (smell/hearing focus) - Poor social skills (eye contact, disinterest, little empathy) - Dislike of clothing - Vocabulary usually better than grammar, but sometimes no language at all

Answer 41

- Seriously deprived in many ways not just linguistically - Very traumatised - How much do linguistic difficulties arise due to poor social development? □ Language is used to interact with other people, so if you're not interacting with other people why do you need it - We know very little about their initial state - Highly variable environments

Answer 42

○ Performance on grammatical tasks in ASL depends highly on the age it was learned ○ Suggests there is a critical period that makes it harder to get to native 'speaker' level (meaning people who have learned it from birth) ○ Similar study in BSL (British sign language) found similar dependence on age- those who acquired it later did worse, even compared to second-language learners

Answer 43

○ Does the age at which you acquire the second language effect how good you get to be at it? - Performance on grammatical tasks in one's second language depends highly on the age it was learned - If you arrived sometime before 15 you end up doing pretty well - After 15 - the later you started learning the worse you would be ○ Is there a sensitive period for language, distinct from sensitive periods for achieving mastery in other domains? - Clear evidence that there is one - hard to tell qualitively unlike other forms of expert learning

Answer 44

○ Units of sound (consonants or vowels) in a language: the shortest segment of speech that distinguishes two words

Answer 45

- Sounds where air is not blocked - Depends on shape of the mouth and tongue positioning - Depends on where in the mouth the vowel is pronounced

Answer 46

- Sounds where air is blocked - Depends on voicing - when the vocal chords begin to vibrate □ Voiced = z, v, g, b, d □ Voiceless= s, f, k, p, t - Depends on place of articulation - where in the mouth the obstruction is - Depends on manner of articulation - how the blockage occurs

Answer 47

○ Based on categorical perception: - Our perceptual system imposes a discrete category even though the underlying physical stimulus is continuous - If you gradually move from g to k, there is a distinct moment when you stop perceiving it as g and start hearing k - it is not a gradual/continuous perception - Consonants are perceived categorically, vowels are not

Answer 48

□ Infants get bored if presented with the same stimulus for long enough - Can measure their boredom based on their sucking on things or their eye gaze □ We know when they perceive two things as the same if they are habituated to the first thing and stay bored when presented with the second □ Habituate infants by repeating the same phoneme until they get bored - present them with a new phoneme and see if they recognise it as different (control: present them with another new phoneme that differs by the same voice onset time (VOT) but does not cross phonemic boundary) □ Should perceive the control as the same phoneme and remain bored, but perceive the cross-boundary phoneme as different and get excited - This is what they found - Infants appear to have categorical perception from 3 months or less - Perceive all consonants in all languages even though adults cannot - Implies it is innate knowledge - Does not suggest it is language-specific ◊ Did same test on animals and came out with same results as babies

Answer 49

By about 12 months they can only hear those that are in their native language - Probably makes speech perception much faster and more efficient

Answer 50

We learn them through statistical learning

Answer 51

Sensitivity to statistics of the environment - which things occur and which things they occur with

Answer 52

□ Individual - How often and in what distribution does a thing occur □ Co-occurrence - How often and in what distribution do two different things occur together

Answer 53

□ Train babies on the distribution of a new language and see if they learn the new contrast □ 8 month-old English-learning babies trained on Hindi contrast that doesn't exist in english □ Control group heard a series of tones □ Unimodal group - distribution favoured one category □ Bimodal group - distribution favoured two categories □ Habituate them to sound A - do they dishabituate to sound B? □ Found - Infants only dishabituated in bimodal condition - suggests they used that condition to learn the Hindi phoneme contrast

Answer 54

□ Took babies at 6 months and train them on new phoneme contrast not in their native language □ Some learned it and some didn't - can tell by dishabituation behaviour □ Take same babies and get a sense of their vocabulary and 13 months and 16 months □ Found that how well they did on the task at 6 months (how long it took them to hear the contrast) predicts their vocabulary at 16 and 13 months □ Suggests that it's useful to learn the phonemes of your native language

Answer 55

○ Yes - much more difficult and performance is more fragile | ○ Adults with lots of musical training tend to do better

Answer 56

-spaces can't be heard • Since you speak a language fluently your brain puts the spaces in between words • How do people know where the spaces go?

Answer 57

- Maybe with phonotactic constraints □ Limitations on which sequences on sounds are permissible in language □ Learning them might help distinguish what might the start and end of a word based on what sounds are allowed where - Prosodic constraints □ Which stress patterns are common in that language Infants are aware of these by 9 months

Answer 58

□ These constraints only get you so far: can't segment all words based on those □ For both, you need to know something about what words are before you can use the constraints - chicken or egg situation

Answer 59

□ Words are chunks of language that always have same sequence of phonemes □ If you learn which phonemes go together and which don't you'll be able to use that to pick out which are words □ Capture this intuition with notion of transition probability - For each unit, it's the probability of each other unit following □ If what people are sensitive to are these transition probabilities, then maybe they are learning which things are words by using statistical learning - which things occur with which other things?

Answer 60

□ Habituated infants to a stream of speech and defined the words solely by transition probabilities (not real words, merely sounds whereby the transition periods of the syllables was made to seem as though they were words) - Mechanised speech - no tonal or phonotactic information □ Then changed it up to make transition probabilities different (ie changed the probability that one syllable would be followed by the another) □ If infants noticed the change, they only could have noticed it if they were tracking the transition probabilities in the first place □ Defined the 'words' so that the transition probability between the syllables within a 'word' was 1, and that of the syllables between a 'word' was 0.33 □ For some infants they played a partial word (so only part of the syllables that went together, not the whole word) and others got non-words (so where the transition probability of the second syllable following the first was 1/3 not 1) □ Children perked up in both instances but more so for the non-words □ So responded differently for partial words and non-words □ Only reason for this would be if they had been tracking transition probabilities

Answer 61

- Took 4 adults and taught them a made-up language with 1000 word types and repeated them in different combinations 60 000 times (10 hours of speech, listened to while exercising) - Tested them on the segmentation of the words both immediately and after 1-2 months - All participants in both tests did really well compared to the control (people who did the test without having listened to it) - 3 years later, 3 came back and were given the same test - Remembered the high frequency words even after 3 years - Perhaps transition probability could explain word segmentation for a whole language

Answer 62

No: | ○ Also found with visual sequences, action sequences, and spatial organisation

Answer 63

• Saussure: the arbitrariness of sign ○ The form of a word tells you little about its meaning ○ To learn a word's meaning you basically have to memorise it • The problem of reference (Quine) ○ The meaning of any word is logically unconstrained ○ Could be infinite meanings of one word

Answer 64

○ First words usually come in between 8 and 14 months - varies tremendously ○ First words are piecemeal but at some point (usually 12-24 months) there is a vocabulary spurt characterised by very rapid learning ○ Vocabulary growth varies with SES and environment - Due in part to umber of words they hear - Also possibly the amount of conversational turn- taking -Production follows comprehension - children will understand more than they say

Answer 65

Children rely on a number of useful biases and principles: - Shape bias - Mutual exclusivity - Size principle - Social reasoning

Answer 66

□ Sensitive to features with meaning in the word □ One of main features in shape □ Children prefer to categorise (most) nouns by shape □ Emerges over the course of the second year □ May be learned based on statistical associations between words and features of categories they pick out □ Eg the shape bias matches the pattern of how words (particuarly solids)are used in the input □ This is statistical learning of which things occur with each other □ Evidence for learning - Test: ◊ Taught children new words that were very clearly organised by shape (associated with shapes) - wanted to see if that helped them have the shape bias emerge earlier ◊ Took infants in before they had shape bias and taught them the new words with the shapes over 9 sessions ◊ Found that the shape bias did emerge in the ones that were taught, but the ones that were taught that also had improved vocabulary ◊ Suggests not only that the shape bias was caused by statistical learning, but that the shape bias itself helped them learn words outside of the lab

Answer 67

□ Children generally assume items don't have more than one label □ If you see two items and one of them you don't know, one you do - probably will say the word you don't know will match the item you don’t know □ Problem: - Must be a soft bias - many items do have multiple labels (eg dog, pet, animal) - How, when and why is it overridden

Answer 68

□ Bunch of things in the world but you don’t know the words for them □ Multiple examples are evidence for the smallest category hat covers them □ If you have one example for something you people will mostly extend it to the basic level □ The more examples you have, the smaller the category becomes - more specific □ Three levels of categories: - Subordinate - Basic - Superordinate

Answer 69

□ Language is a social thing □ Infants only learn labels if the speaker is looking at the object □ If they are looking away, infant will not associate the word with the object □ Children do not learn labels if the speaker has previously mislabeled other items -Pay attention to how knowledgable the speaker is

Answer 70

• Data is information that has been transformed into a manner that can be manipulated, analysed, and used to infer relationships

Answer 71

Categorical | Continuous

Answer 72

- Binary □ Two categories that are usually in opposition to each other □ Exclusive to each other □ Yes or no/ present or absent/ 0 or 1 - Nominal □ Name □ Label we give for each category indicates something similar for everyone in that category □ Category labels don't indicate any kind of relationship to each other □ 3 or more - Ordinal □ 3 or more □ Order □ Names of each category have a particular meaning which shows a relationship to each other - All collect frequency data - Can't get a mean score - Chi-squared looks at patterns of frequencies - what patterns can we expect

Answer 73

- Interval □ Number represent particular order □ Distance between each number is the same □ Temperature □ Does not treat 0 as anything special - no particular meaning - Ratio □ Same as interval but zero is significant □ 0=absolute □ Eg time, length, weight

Answer 74

``` • Open-class words: ○ Carry the content ○ Easy to add new members ○ Produced earlier ○ Easier for 2nd language learners • Closed-class words: ○ Carry much of the grammar ○ Hard to add new members ○ Produced later ○ Harder for 2nd language learners ```

Answer 75

- Determine what arguments are - In charge of the sentence - verb tells you what the other arguments in the sentence should be - Determine whether arguments are optional or not

Answer 76

Probably not: □ Study on preschoolers - Made up a verb 'moop' and gave examples of using it 'he mooped the ball to her', 'he is mooping Ralph the ball' - saying it with particular arguments - Asked about something they had never seen before - 'can you say he is mooping the ball to her?' - kids said yes ◊ Generalising to a context they haven't seen before □ People are willing to say verbs in argument structures they have never heard before - generalising beyond the input not just copying

Answer 77

No □ Taught people another verb pilk: 'she is pilking the data to the screen' □ Can you say 'she is pilking the screen the data'? □ Most said no □ Used patterns of their language to make an informed decision about the verb rules

Answer 78

There are so many exceptions to the rules - how do we learn the exceptions?

Answer 79

- Maybe children are told when they get things wrong (ie they get negative evidence) ◊ Probably doesn't play much role - children appear not to receive much, or if they do they don't notice it ◊ Parents tend to only correct the truth of the child's utterance, not the grammatical correctness ◊ Often the child doesn't understand the correction - Maybe they are sensitive to more subtle kinds of negative evidence - rephrasings that statistically occur more often ◊ This does occur, but it's arguable whether it is enough to entirely solve the problem - Maybe they use implicit negative evidence about which argument structures don't appear ◊ Does also happen - predicts that overgeneralisation errors should be more common for infrequent verbs ◊ Children taught a new language with two kinds of arguments - some with 'ka' and some without - Later asked which verbs were grammatical - the more a verb occurred with 'ka' the more they were likely to say 'ka' was grammatical

Answer 80

- Morphemes are the smallest units that convey meaning (sometimes 's' to indicate plurality, 'ing' implies it's continuous etc) - Includes tense, which overlaps with mood (whether it is certain to happen), and aspect (whether it is ongoing)

Answer 81

□ Regular (+ed) - Psychologically real - can adapt new words and +ed to make it past tense □ Irregular (mostly occur in clusters based on similarity of the stem) - Also psychologically real - people are more confused about new verbs that sound like irregulars - Therefore not just purely memorising them □ Irregular verbs are the most frequent - suggests evolutionary story - If a verb is infrequent, it's unlikely to be well-memorised - people are more likely to +ed to the end

Answer 82

- Theory that it follows a U-shaped curve □ Start learning through memorisation, so get some things right □ Then realise there is a pattern so add 'ed' to everything - past tense rules are overgeneralised □ Then mistakes are corrected - Lots of debate around the reasons for this curve - Revolves around whether there are two opposing mechanisms (rules vs memorisation) or whether it all emerges from statistical learning

Answer 83

-One possibility: learning the rules of a language = learning words that immediately follow other words (bigrams/n-grams) -People probably don't just use n-grams to capture grammatical rules -There are long-distance dependencies between words in sentences, suggesting some deep/hidden structure related to the verb linking them - It's impossible to track long-distance dependencies if all you notice is word-to-word probabilities - you'd need very long word chains - goes beyond realisitic confines of human memory -More agreed-upon possibility:phrase structure - phrases nested in with one another in our underlying mental representation ○ The underlying depiction of a sentence's phrase structure is called its parse tree ○ Syntactic ambiguity arises from sentences with the same words but different meanings - because they have different parse trees - Shows parse trees are psychologically real ○ Syntactic ambiguity (poorly resolved) can lead to unintentional humour

Answer 84

○ People do our best to figure the phase structure out as we're hearing the sentence ○ Sometimes this results in us getting misled into choosing the wrong parse tree - having to go back and reanalyse it from the beginning - Called garden path sentences □ Implies that sentences with larger long- distance dependencies tend to be more difficult ○ Developmentally - even children are remarkably good at figuring out language as it comes - a skill distinct from, but correlated with, knowledge of vocabulary

Answer 85

* First few years of life, from birth to aroud 1 year of age | * Piaget's sensorimotor stage

Answer 86

- Emphasised self control | - Children are born with innate knowledge

Answer 87

- Knowledge comes from experience | - Infant's mind is a blackboard with nothing written on it

Answer 88

Motor milestones Reflexes Sensory abilities

Answer 89

2 months: can lift head (av range= 0-3months) 6 months: sit independently (av range=5-9 months) 8 months: crawling on hands and knees(av range=6-11) 9 months: Pulls to stand (av range = 6-12 months) 12 months: walking (av range= 9-17 months) - Cultural differences in motor milestones - reflecting contexts of development - Motor milestones not met by latter end of average range may require further investigation - Investigation is important especially if multiple developmental delays have been noted

Answer 90

- From birth have the gripping reflex - Inborn automatic responses to different forms of stimulation - biologically based (suggests importance for survival) - Gives quick indication of baby's neurological status - Some reflexes can be refined over time to become complex patterns of behaviours, others may drop out - Common infant reflexes □ Crawling □ Grasping □ Rooting (head turns with mouth open when touched on the cheek) □ Moro (outstretched arms and arched back when startled or loss of support) □ Stepping □ Babinski (fanning out of toes when foot stroked)

Answer 91

- Sight □ Poor acuity (things are not clear), but prominent features pop out □ Can see objects from a distance of 14cm □ Colour perception by 1 month □ Newborn visual ability for social stimuli: - Look longer at regular face-like patterns than scrambled face pattern - Look longer at biological motion than other kinds of motion - Can differentiate familiar faces from unfamiliar faces, and smiling from unsmiling □ Preferential looking techniques enable us to infer what infants can see □ Gaze preferences have implications for what babies observe and learn □ Babies later diagnosed with ASD do not show preference for faces over other displays - perhaps miss out on social and language cues conveyed by faces □ Third trimester fetus looks towards three dots configured like a face not towards three dots in inverted configuration

Answer 92

□ Sensitive to temperature change □ Evidence of sensitivity to pain - physiological indicators - Not possible to assess cognitive components of pain □ Research has shown positive benefits of massage for preterm infants, infants of depressed mums, infants suffered abuse, HIV infants, infants exposed to drugs - Benefits include weight gain and later cognitive and motor development □ Research with humans and other mammals suggest that touch may be a necessity for mammalian development, both at physiological and social level

Answer 93

□ Newborns can discriminate mum's voice from unfamiliar female voice, and discriminate familiar from unfamiliar novel story read by mum □ Preparedness for language - infant can discriminate sounds of speech in own language from other languages at 6 months

Answer 94

□ Differences in mouth chemistry make sensory experience different for infants: - Taste chemistry changes throughout childhood reaching adult form by early adolescence

Answer 95

□ Breastfed newborns discriminate and prefer scent of own mum than lactating stranger □ Bottle fed infants prefer scent of lactating females □ Breastfeeding seems to trigger odour learning and the development of preferences - Historically infants were thought to 'feel nothing' - recent research shows newborns are aware of stimuli in their environment and have ways of coping with an entirely new sensory environment from birth - Infant's sensory abilities may scaffold the development of some cognitive and social competencies

Answer 96

○ 1 month olds - Able to scan over a face - Focus on eyes and mouth ○ 3 months old - Still focusing on same areas but more focused, more elaborated and they spend more time on the areas - Indicates this are is what they are interested in ○ Early facial perception skills are developed over time - not static

Answer 97

○ Newborns: § Can hear soft sounds as well as adults § Fairly good at determining location of sound

Answer 98

○ Good overview of children's thinking at different points ○ Broad spectrum of development and ages ○ Fascinating observations

Answer 99

○ Stage model depicts children's thinking as more consistent than it is -More individual diversity and variability in each stage than he gives credit to ○ Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognised ○ Piaget's theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children's thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth - Information processing accounts of developmental change

Answer 100

* Focus on what young infants already know and can do * Infants are born with some innate knowledge in domains of special evolutionary importance * Alongside general learning abilities - infants have domain-specific specialised learning abilities for rapidly and easily acquiring new information and understanding in these domains * Core knowledge systems form the foundation for subsequent learning

Answer 101

○ Objects and their mechanical interactions ○ Agents and their goal-directed actions ○ Number and magnitude ○ Spatial layouts and geometric relationships ○ Possibly, social partners

Answer 102

○ Domain specific - Knowledge is limited to a particular area - Areas are of evolutionary importance - objects, space, actions, social partners - Each domain stands relatively independent from one another ○ Active child - Infants are biologically equipped from birth to actively acquire knowledge and understanding from their environment using domain-specific core knowledge systems ○ Nativism and constructivism - Some core knowledge researchers emphasise innate knowledge (nativism) - Others emphasise that increasingly sophisticated understanding is constructed from the core foundation, using both core knowledge systems and general learning abilities (constructivism) □ EG infants are born with the ability to distinguish and recognise language (native) but then this grows and develops over time (constructivist) ○ Continuous development - View cognitive development as continuous rather than discontinuous - Core knowledge systems shape and constrain later learning - Violations of core knowledge expectations - motivate curiosity and learning

Answer 103

○ Objects - possible and impossible events § Infants habituated to the sight of a screen rotating 180 degrees § A block is placed in the path of the screen (which should stop it from doing the full 180 rotation § They are shown either a possible event (the screen stopping when it hits the block) or an impossible event (the screen continuing through the block) § Found that the infants looked longer at the impossible event than the possible one □ Indicates it violated what they expected to see - have some kind of core knowledge of how objects interact with each other § Core knowledge of objects has certain features and limits □ Objects move as connected and bound wholes □ Move on connected, unobstructed paths □ Do not interact at a distance □ Infants can track and represent only 3 objects at a time □ Infants demonstrate these abilities at the earliest age that we can test them - indicates that it is not dependent on visual experience - innate

Answer 104

○ Number - knowing the number of things § Infants are shown one object is placed in a box § A screen appears in front of the object § A hand enters the box with a second object, goes behind the screen and leaves empty § Then shown either possible outcome (screen is dropped and two objects are behind it) or impossible outcome (screen drops and only one is behind it) § Infants looked longer at the impossible outcome □ Implies they have been keeping track of the number of objects □ Core knowledge of number

Answer 105

○ Events - prediction of what will happen § Clear jar of coloured balls § Many more red balls than white § 8 month olds look longer when adult draws 4 white balls and one red ball □ Unexpected outcome □ Rational learning showing some sensitivity to magnitude - part of core knowledge number system

Answer 106

○ Agents and their actions § 0-2 years of age - use early forms of psychological reasoning to make sense of a person's intentional actions □ Assume actions are goal-oriented □ Goals are achieved by efficient means § Eg: □ Infants aged 6-12 months watched adult move an object around an obstacle to reach a target □ In test trials, obstacle is removed and adult either moves directly to target or moves around the invisible object to get to target □ Infants looked longer at the invisible object path than the direct path ® Suggests they attributed agent to the goal of reaching the target, and expected agent to achieve goal efficiently § Second example: □ 6 month old were habituated to action of a hand reaching toward a ball instead of a doll (they were placed next to each other) ® Goal of reaching ball as a target □ Infant looked longer when the hand reached for the doll instead of the ball regardless of position swapping ® Suggests that they have realised a new goal ® Did not look longer at a mechanical claw reaching for doll - suggests that agent-goal orientation is specific to humans § Third example □ Infants can imitate what person inteded to do even if they didn't actually do it □ From age 12-18months when a child sees a person try and fail at performing an action, they imitate the intended action □ Sees someone try but fail to pull both end off a dumbell ® Child imitates pulling the ends off - what the person intended to do but failed at ® Don't imitate mechanical device

Answer 107

§ Language is a cue to group membership - infants are sensitive to language spoken: □ Show preference for native language over foreign language □ Look longer at a person speaking native language than foreign language □ Will choose food they have observed speakers of their native language choosing, over that chosen by speakers of a foreign language □ More likely to imitate intended action of a person speaking native language

Answer 108

○ Domain-specific § Systems only represent small subset of things and events perceived by infants ○ Task specific § Each system functions to solve a limited set of problems ○ Encapsulated § Systems operate with a fair degree of independence from other cognitive systems

Answer 109

○ Domain specific ○ Domain general ○ Constructivist ○ Nativist

Answer 110

§ Consider human infants to have some domain specific socio-cognitive skills that shape cognitive development § Apply specifically to motivating them in engaging social partners § core knowledge system for social partners

Answer 111

§ Emphasis that children acquire general cognitive abilities that apply across various types of content § General cognitive abilities develop via language

Answer 112

§ See children actively constructing knowledge and understanding within context of social interaction § Motivated to pay attention to social partners, share activities, and share psychological states

Answer 113

§ Recognise that infants have some innate cognitive abilities and motivations, such as orientation to faces, ability to follow eye gaze, understand goals and intentions of others

Answer 114

• Modern sociocultural theories: Michael Tomasello & Malinda Carpenter ○ Human cognition is different to that of any other species ○ We use language, maths, create social institutions, build etc ○ It is not individual brainpower that differentiates human cognition, it is the ability of humans to learn through other people and collaborate with them

Answer 115

○ Collaborative interactions in which participants share psychological states with each other, including desires, intentions and enjoyment ○ Underpinned by domain-specific and uniquely human socio-cultural and social-motivational skills ○ Humans are the only animals who instruct each other to assist in learning ○ Non-human primates will follow eye gaze and can understand the goals of others - show core knowledge of agents and their goals § They do not look at an interacting social partner just to share interest, enjoyment and attention to external thing

Answer 116

○ Following an adult's gaze helps infants participate in joint attention with the adult ○ Important for language development

Answer 117

§ Cognitive advances occur as children act directly with physical world § Adapt current thinking to fit external reality § Language is relatively unimportant in sparking changes to thinking

Answer 118

§ Cognitive advances are result of social learning, not independent learning § Adults and older children scaffold children's learning via joint activity and co-operative dialogue § Language is crucial as it is the primary means by which children acquire concepts and social meanings § Language opens new cognitive doors and shapes thought

Answer 119

○ Infants are equipped with basic sensory, perceptual, attentional, and memory capacities similar to other animals ○ These undergo further development in first few years as infant gains experience with external world and other people ○ Once children start to learn language, participate in social dialogues while engaged in culturally important tasks with others ○ Start to communicate with themselves in a similar way to how they talk with others - private speech ○ As a result, basic mental capacities are transformed into new uniquely human ways of thinking

Answer 120

○ A 'world-directed' tool enhances the potential of our bodies (eg spade), or allows entirely new activity (eg needle and thread) ○ Some cultural tools are 'mind directed' (abacus, calendar, compass) - they enhance cognitive abilities ○ Verbal language can be a tool for solving particular kinds of cognitive problems ○ Language can make complex ideas more concrete and scaffold action ○ Internalised verbal instruction to the self can scaffold individual thought processes and problem solving (eg a child's inner speech) ○ Language between people can be an efficient tool for facilitating human interaction (eg sharing action plans and concepts)

Answer 121

○ Dialogue with adults while engaging in meaningful activity allows children to develop cognitive abilities such as planning, problem-solving, abstract reasoning, categorisation ○ Once children can participate in dialogue with others - can start to use that with themselves ○ Through language, child can achieve intersubjectivity with someone else § When people adjust their perspective of something to align with someone else's perspective ○ Adult or older child uses language to scaffold activity for a child

Answer 122

§ Considered it to be egocentric speech | § Reflecting that a child is in preoperational stage and cannot take perspectives of others

Answer 123

§ For self-guidance - especially with difficult task when they don't know how to proceed § Helps children regulate behaviour and select an action § Language is foundation for higher cognitive processes such as planning, problem solving and reasoning

Answer 124

The active child

Answer 125

A conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about one's self -Thoughts and attitudes about physical self, social characteristics, an internal characteristics

Answer 126

``` - 'I' self ◊ Self as knower, actor, inner life, not accessible to others ◊ Impossible to expressive - 'me' self ◊ The thing being known, self object of evaluation ◊ Three aspects: - Material self, - Social self - Spiritual self ```

Answer 127

- What makes a person a person? □ Everything in their possession - what they can control and manipulate to be a representation of what they are (clothes, room, house, toys etc) □ Isn't saying we need to own things to have a sense of self, but we use the things we do own to express who we are

Answer 128

- Isn't a matter of introversion and extraversion - About social connection □ We form a relationship with every person we meet and in doing that we express a part of ourselves and they express a part of themseleves - find a part in the middle where we can connect and in doing so we slightly adjust who we are □ Adjust ourselves for every single person we meet □ 'A man has as many social selves as there are individuals who know him' □ How a person thinks of themselves changes with every interaction □ People can behave very differently in social situations while still being their one true self

Answer 129

- Most enduring and intimate part of the self according to William James - A self that is evaluated, has attitudes and thoughts developed about it - Informed by elements of life that are culturally sanctioned - Take a long time to form - once they are formed it is very difficult to change

Answer 130

- Essential for regulation of all behaviour - Self regulation □ Process of monitoring and changing our behaviour □ Important for survival □ Important for social relationships □ Important for achieving goals and desires - Helps with regulation in two ways □ Provides a lens which all stimuli is interpreted through □ Self expectations, goals and beliefs - Decisions about our behaviour are informed by our understanding of who we are - Children need a sense of their expectations, goals and beliefs to regulate their behaviour □ Not core skills - develop over time

Answer 131

○ When looking at children's development of self-concept, can see changes in - Thoughts and attitudes about the self - Complexities of the 'material', social, and spiritual selves ○ Both qualitative, discontinuous changes - irreversible - When we think of ourselves in a new way you can't really go back ○ And quantitative changes - Sits between domains fo thoughts and attitudes and it is the complexity/extent to which we understand that that we see it changing

Answer 132

○ Infancy (0-1) - Don't have a capacity to express themselves in a detailed way - Gaze (and perhaps facial expression) □ Shows a preference for some activity and some people - indicates some level of interal desire ○ Toddlerhood (1-2) - Self-concept could start here - Pronouns, body control □ More expressive verbally and physically □ Aware that words can represent different people □ Start to learn that bodies are part of themselves and can manipulate their bodies to express themselves ○ Early childhood (3-5) - Use concrete, observable attributes to describe themselves □ Descriptions are optimistic and reflect unrealistic abilities □ Don't realise their own limitations □ Don't have experience of their limitations □ Don't have reason to believe skills are not 100% ○ Mid childhood (6-9) - Concrete descriptions of themselves that is more realistic - Social comparisons - between own abilities and attributes in comparison to someone else - Recognise that skills are measurable and quantitative □ Fundamental for self-concept, self-esteem, social belonging, and social prejudice ○ Late childhood (9-11) - Social selves are not just based off comparisons of others, but perceptions of others □ 'my friends say I…' - Grouping together abilities and attributes - not just list of observable things, but higher-order abstract descriptors - Think of sense of self in terms of values ○ Early adolescence (12-14) - Use of values and higher-order abstract descriptors is much more prominent in person's understanding of the self □ Causes new consequences in the way they think about themselves □ As they get better at grouping together abilities and attributes into abstract categories, increasing potential for the categories to conflict with one another □ Continue to value themselves according to other's evaluation of them - start to see social self -First time these conflicts really become apparent - Don't fully grasp that this is occurring in everyone - leads to egocentrism ○ Late adolescence (15-18) - Express sense of self in variety of different ways - Think about sense of self in complex, higher-order ways - Developing a strong sense of who they are

Answer 133

- Problems with personality and behvaiour in adulthood can be explained by traumatic experiences during childhood especially those that cannot be recalled - Focus on maladaptive development (unlike Erikson) - Tension between Id (drive to seek pleasure and avoid pain), superego (morality) and ego (drive for morality - compromise between Id and superego) □ Tension results in conscious - the 'me' self - As our self-concept changes, so does the capacity for each of these drives to change our world view - Five stages -LOOK AT NOTES

Answer 134

○ Attachment theory - Emphasises importance of relationship between child and caregiver ○ Neuroscience - Brain imaging research associates specific areas of the brain with emotion, cognition, executive function ○ Psychopathology - Relationship between trauma and onset of mental illnesses - Importance of life context for diagnosis and treatment ○ Developmental psych - Lifespan trajectories - Dynamic systems approach ○ Cultural influences - Pivotal to the way that we think about media and film and portrayals of the psyche - Relationship between client and clinician - trust - Challenging mainstream views in scientific practice - any clinician/scientist/therapist cannot take an objective position in that research

Answer 135

• The development of self-concept occurs alongside the development of social cognition ○ The depth and complexity with which children come to understand others is approximately the same as the complexity to which they come to understand themselves • Specific framework for how children learn from others: ○ Learn by observing behaviours of others ○ Observing how others react to those behaviours ○ Observing how they (the child) feel about those behaviours

Answer 136

○ Learning through observations and reactions applies to more than just aggression - Eg waste practices - Alcohol usage - Violence against women

Answer 137

* Practicing awareness of the perspective of the perspective of another person - better understanding that person's behaviour, thoughts and feelings might be different from one's own * Children's understanding of other's perspectives takes about 6 years to develop (between 6 and 12)

Answer 138

-Stage 0 (-6 y/o): Egocentric -Difficulty recognising other people's perspectives -Stage 1 (6-8 y/o): Subjective -People have different perspectives only if they have different information -Stage 2 (8-10 y/o): Self reflective - people have different perspectives = different motivations -Stage 3 (10-12 y/o): Mutual -Recognises motivations of others as a third-party spectator -Stage 4 (12 y/o +): Societal -Makes comparisons of self and other to a "generalised other"

Answer 139

* An emotional bond between a caregiver and a child that endures across time and context * First bonding relationship * Has a strong impact on the rest of their life

Answer 140

○ All of a person's meaningful relationships throughout their life have elements of the attachment style they form with their caregiver ○ Infants who have a positive, caring relationship with their caregivers value and seek out caring relationships into adulthood

Answer 141

○ Security (increased confidence to explore ○ Survival (food and safety) ○ Co-regulation (of emotions, arousal)

Answer 142

○ Expectations and behaviours in meaningful relationships in the future

Answer 143

- Pre-attachment (first 6 weeks) □ Child uses crying and smiling to communicate needs □ Caregiver responds to signals, comforts - Attachment in the making (6 weeks-8 mo) □ Child shows preference for familiar people - Using gaze □ Caregiver responds to needs, builds trust □ Involves effort and activity in both parties - Clear-cut attachment (8 months - 1.5 years) □ Child activley seeks out caregiver attention and contact □ Caregiver is secure base - builds child's confidence and facilitates exploration - Reciprocal relationships (1.5 years +) □ Child recognises caregiver's needs and feelings - ToM (this is when they start to recognise other people's feelings, but can't recognise that what helps other people is different) □ Mutual regulation - working partnership □ Parent becomes less involved in regulating child's needs - Child becomes more active and autonomous in emotion regulation - Each person has a part to play and receives a benefit from the relationship □ The extent to which they do that affects the nature of relationship and the attachment style

Answer 144

○ Parent , infant, and a 'stranger' ○ Parent leaves room and infant's response is observed when it is just infant and stranger ○ Parent returns and infant's response is observed again when in the presence of parent ○ Baby's response is indicitive of developing relationship with caregiver

Answer 145

○ Secure attachment style - Infant is upset when caregiver leaves □ Highlights short-term consequences □ Mistrust of strangers - need for emotional security - Happy when they return - Easy to comfort when caregiver returns □ Shows development of trust with the caregiver □ Trust that abandonment was temporary - Associated with most positive developmental outcomes ○ Insecure/resistent attachment - Infant is upset when caregiver leaves □ Represents need for survival and mistrust of strangers - Difficult to comfort upon return □ Either infant cannot easily find comfort in parent □ Or do not trust that abandonment was temporary - cannot trust that they will return in future ○ Insecure/Avoidant - Infant is indifferent when parent leaves - Indifferent when they return - Can just as easily be comforted by stranger as by parent □ Suggests infant hasn't learned to mistrust strangers □ Or do not feel that parent is important for survival and needs ○ Disorganised/disoriented - Infant acts confused when parent leaves - Infant might act in contradictory ways - each time parent leaves and returns they have a different response □ Behaviour isn't consistent enough to be classified in other styles

Answer 146

○ Attachment might endure across a lifestyle but they can change quick quickly ○ Study looking at how infant attachment styles change from 15months to 36 months - Data was collected at 2 time points - Majority of children at 15 months had secure style - More children in secure style at 36 months - over time more children develop secure style - For those starting with secure style most remain that way - Most of children with Insecure/resistant style move into secure style - Only small amount of insecure/avoidant infants also become secure - Some stability across time, but a lot of change between insecure and secure ○ Childcare predictors of attachment: - Putting children in childcare and separating from caregiver is damaging to caregiver-child relationship □ Reduces likelihood of secure attachment with caregiver - How does childcare affect attachment style? □ Regression analysis - Four measurement groups: ◊ Attachment style at 36 mo ◊ Childcare (quality, type, duration) ◊ Family environment (maternal sensitivity) ◊ Ratio of income to needs - Hypothesised that all of these might predict attachment style at 36 months - Roughly 62% of sample were securely attached by 36 motnhs ◊ 38% are insecure or disorganised - Family and income factors were directly related to type of attachment ◊ Children whose families had higher income or higher maternal sensitivity were more likely to become securely attached - Childcare was not directly related ◊ But It had indirect effects ◊ It affected attachment for specific groups of people ◊ For those with low maternal sensitivity or difficult home environments = poor quality and high quantity childcare increased likelihood of child being insecurely attached ◊ But high quality and low quantity childcare reduced the likelihood of child being insecurely attached ◊ Means that good-quality childcare can be a buffer for those with difficult family lives - Changes between attachment styles from 15 -36 months? What factors contribute? □ Secure to insecure: - Lower mother sensitivity - Lower income-to-needs ratios - Lower mother education - Female infant - Starting 10+ hours childcare after 15 months - weak prediction compared to others □ Insecure to secure - Higher mother sensitivity

Answer 147

○ Stern et al. - how do new mothers' attachment behaviours they developed, changed over the first two years of their lives as a parent - what circumstances contributed to the change? - Main enduring themes affected (more are too) □ Continuity & discontinuity □ Individual differences - not all first time mothers experience motherhood in the same way - 2 ideas of study: □ Prototype model - attachment behaviours are relatively fixed after 36 months of life, and are applied to new context of parenthood - Would see same type of attachment behaviours at the start of parenthood as 2 years later □ Revisionist model - parenthood is a big change, and it becomes an opportunity to reorganise attachment behaviour - Would see big changes in attachment behaviours across the 2 years - Collected data from women about infants over 5 time points within 2 years - Provided evidence for prototype model - anxiety and avoidance were measured to be quite stable across the time points □ However, there was some diversity - some did change within the mean scores - For avoidance, several things influenced diversity across scores □ Those who perceived more caregiving from their own mothers, and had more social support were less avoidant at baseline □ Those who had higher distress or higher depressive symptoms were more avoidant at baseline □ Those with higher depressive symptoms became marginally more avoidant across the two years - contribution affecting the long- term avoidance □ Those who report higher romantic relationship quality, and more caregiving from mother and partner were less anxious at baseline □ Those who had higher distress and depressive symptoms were more anxious at baseline □ 2 experiences affecting long-term trajectory of anxiety: those who report higher caregiving from their mother report less anxiety after the 2 years, those with higher distress and depressive symptoms become more anxious across 2 years - Findings tells us there is evidence for prototype model - most mothers engage with attachment behaviour styles that they developed earlier in life, but also that circumstances like mental health, support from others and other meaningful relationships can explain for some of the differences in maternal behaviour, and can marginally change maternal behaviour over the 2 years

Answer 148

``` ○ Duration ○ Permanency and stability § Can be especially useful in times of familial difficulty such as divorce ○ Intimacy ○ Shared genetic heritage ○ Shared social/cultural heritage ○ Shared family values ○ Shared family history ```

Answer 149

○ Rivalry = competition between siblings for parents' attention, in terms of achievements, etc. - Can begin as soon as younger sibling comes into family - Can be alleviated by fostering a secure relationship with older sibling before the arrival, or by encouraging older sibling to assist in the caregiving ○ Conflict - about fighting between siblings over posessions, perceived inequality etc - Important early opportunity to learn conflict resolution so they can establish and maintain freindships - More likely to be beneficial if parents monitor and offer intervention as mediation rather than as judges (get them to solve it themselves rather than solving it for them ○ Both are problematic if - There's no conflict resolution - Parents have marital conflict - Parents are uninvolved - Older siblings are aggressive/antisocial □ These behaviours in younger siblings are often an echo of that behaviour in older sibling

Answer 150

-The supportive element of sibling relationship - Older and younger siblings help each other out ○ Older children help with - Socio-cognitive capacity □ Eg ToM and role taking - Caregiving and protection - Teaching □ Evidence that younger siblings learn better when taught by older sibling than teacher □ Also helps older children learn better ○ Younger children help with - Reciprocating behaviour - Offer trust, respect, admiration ○ Both help with - Prosocial behaviour (social skills) - Dealing with parents and other children (translating, diluting dangers, reinforcing messages)

Answer 151

• Every aspect f a child's development is shaped by their broader culture • 5 systems ○ Microsystem - Immediate environment - who they directly interact with ○ Mesosystem - The connection between each of those microsystems (parents relationships with each other etc) ○ Exosystem - Systems in which mesosystems sit that have no direct interaction with the child (parents' workplace etc) ○ Macrosystem - Laws, cultural beliefs, values, and technologies in which all of the other systems are embedded ○ Chronosystem - How the whole system changes over time • Each element of society supports and constrains child's experiences regardless of whether the child interacts with those systems directly or not

Answer 152

○ Consequences of absenteeism - Low academic achievement - School dropout - Poorer mental health - Poorer economic security - Lower life expectancy ○ Benefits of considering how each level of bioeconomic model could influence absenteeism - Consider interaction with multiple levels - Might not be faults of child or parents, but of a larger community, school-based or governance- based issue - Interventions can target any level - Aims to reduce risk and increase protective factors - Applies to children in a variety of circumstances

Answer 153

• Useful for mapping out relationships and change within a particular group • The various parts of any system are also systems in their own right • Relationships between these parts define parts ○ Each system is related to every other system • Substantial or sustained changes to any one part ultimately change the entire system • Dynamic systems model of family resilience ○ When a difficult event occurs - Distressful - Persistent - Or Disruptive transitions ○ The family can respond in one of 2 ways - If the event is overwhelming and effects a couple of family memebers, then it can affect everyone and the familymight not do too well - But a family with 3 characteristics can survive that quite well: -Family Belief system -Making meaning -Hopeful outlook - transcendence -Family organisation -Flexible family structure -Connectedness - External supports -Communication -Clear information -Emotional sharing - Collaborative problem-solving

Answer 154

○ Physiological experience - Symptoms we experience with out senses ○ Subconscious experiences - don't have much control over - Sweating, heart rate ○ Neural responses - Endorphins, adrenaline ○ Cognitions (thoughts) - Some that go with physiological experiences, others are memories/thoughts relevant to the situation ○ Emotional expressions - Facial expressions - Posture/tension - Depth/volume/tone of voice ○ Desire to take action - Motivations: □ Motivation to persist the event □ Motivation to change the event □ Motivation to stop the event ○ Subjective feelings - Emotional experience can vary in saliency, intensity, and duration from another person's experience

Answer 155

○ Discrete model - Emotions are discrete/distinct from each other, - Each emotion comprises its own profile of physical, cognitive, neural, and motivational experiences - Physical and cognitive factors have dominant - Emotions emerge as physical and cognitive components develop in complexity ○ Functionalist model - Emotions serve a purpose in driving how we interact with our environments - Desire is at the forefront ○ Cognitive model - Emphasis is on a cognitive process taking place - The process of appraisals of the event ○ Dynamic model - Each elements sits in an emotional system - they have relationships with each other which defines the emotional experience ○ These perspectives do not oppose one another - can think of emotion as a combination of them

Answer 156

• Emotion as a cognitive process ○ Antecedent (something happening prior to the event we're interested in) triggers primary appraisal (what is happening - use cognitions, physiological and neural experiences) leads to secondary appraisal (what can I do about it - use cognitions, subjective feelings, desires and motivations) leads to action that helps meet desires (use emotional expression, subjective feelings) ○ Action can take you one of two ways - Become new antecedent for new emotional experience - Communicate with others to reach a target or have a consequence on the event taking place (continue, change, stop the event) • This approach to emotion tells us that emotion is more than just a singular experience, it is : ○ A narrative (a process not a singular experience) ○ A sequenced order of internal events ○ A process informing how we respond to stimuli - A process influencing how we communicate with others

Answer 157

• The various parts of the system are also systems in their own right • Relationships between the parts define the parts • Substantial or sustained changes to any one part ultimately changes the entire system • Some experiences are more likely to persist or repeat ○ The more they repeat together the more likely they are to become integrated with one another and the more likely that they represent each other ○ The more they cooccur together the stronger the relationship becomes with those particular experiences ○ When one of these elements changes the entire system changes - if you are scared and you overcome it, might feel proud which could lead to you trying similar scary things again - This approach says that emotion becomes more complex as the child's understanding of their cognitive, physical, personal, and social worlds become more complex

Answer 158

○ Discrete model says that new complex emotional experiences occur only as a function of the new cognitive or neurological capabilities that are being developed, the dynamic systems model says that complex emotions emerge as part of dynamic/changing relationship between person's cognitive, physiological, and physical interpretations and as a consequence of the relationship with the child's responses with the world around them

Answer 159

• Conscious and unconscious process used to monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions ○ We regulate our emotions in order to be socially acceptable - more likeable and valuable to people around us - increasing likelihood that they will help us meet our own goals

Answer 160

○ As a child's self-concept and social cognition becomes more complex, so does their ability to become aware of their emotion and to modulate and regular it ○ Infancy and toddlerhood (0-2) - Reliance on caregivers for reultaion - Minimal regulation at 6 months □ Self-soothing - sucking things □ Can avert gaze - useful sign that children have control of their own capacities to meet their own preferences □ By age 2 children start to co-regulate emotion - do not solely rely on caregiver (but still aren't good at self-regulation - still experiencing emotions they haven't experienced before like shame and guilt) - contributes to 'terrible twos' - Early and middle childhood (3-9) □ Averting attention - Self-play, negotiation - as language abilities get stronger, they can expressly articulate how they are feeling □ Cognitive strategies (display rules) - Rely on ToM - Having an emotion but expressing another emotion - like getting a present you don't like □ Physical strategies - Removing all stimuli so you can calm body down before joining group again (like lying down away from everyone) - Late childhood (3-6) □ Cognitive strategies to cope with an assess the value of difficult emotional events - Use values in regards to their self-concept - reassess importance of friendships with mean people - Shift values and goals to protect self- esteem □ Manipulate behaviour for goals □ Can distinguish between stressors within their control (eg homework) and those outside of their control - Adolescence (12+) □ ER is disrupted by changes during puberty - Arousal, motivation, risk-taking - Increased sense of self and with big questions of 'who am I' with increased agency and autonomy in adolescence and an increased responsibility means the emotional turmoil of adolescence can have much more severe consequences than for a 2 year-old

Answer 161

○ Continuity and discontinuity - Qualitative change - changes taking place differ in how we describe each strategy rather than a score ○ Mechanisms for change - Biological - Social - Cognitive □ A toddler appraising a situation is very different to how an adolescent would ○ The active child - Active in implementation of strategies - Passive acquisition ○ Individual differences - Change occurs at different rates

Answer 162

• A person's patterns of emotion, activity level, and attention that are generally consistent across contexts and over time ○ Temperament is not static - it can change and develop

Answer 163

○ Three patterns of temperament in infants - Easy □ Soothable, happy, responsive to parents' engagement - Difficult □ Not easily soothed, angry and distressed a lot of the time - Slow to warm up □ Start off not responsive, and then over the course of the day become happier - 40% have easy, 10% difficult, 15% slow to warm up ○ This research raises limitation - 35% of the sample are unclassifiable - do not benefit for this temperament framework - need a differen approach

Answer 164

○ Look for clusters/patterns across multiple variables ○ Allows for different patterns across variables and include everyone in sample ○ Can map out different profiles of temperament across different dimensions ○ Contedning dimensions - Anger/distress - Fear/inhibition - Happiness/smiling - Activity level - Attention - Neurophysiology

Answer 165

○ Externalising behaviour - Behaviour directed at an external world □ Aggression, violence, property damage ○ Internalising behaviour - Behaviour directed at internal self □ Self blame, self-doubt, withdrawal ○ These behaviours are not a problem in general, but become a problem when they are persistent, disruptive, and cause the person distress - both can be linked with mental illnesses developing

Answer 166

- Interviewed children at 4 time points: 18mo, 30 mo, between 4&5 years, and between 8 and 9 - Wanted to know temperament profiles were - Found 5 profiles □ A: low on shyness and high on emotionality, sociability, and activity □ B: low on shyness and emotionality, high on sociablity and activity □ C: low on all □ E: high on everything □ D: only high on shyness - Temperaments styles did differ in the children's levels of externalising behaviours over time □ Externalising behaviour - A, B, & E saw the most change over time - all had higher activity and sociability ◊ Perhaps high activity and sociability are things to look out for to guide regulation behaviours and strategies before problematic behaviours are developed □ Internalising behaviours - A is stable in early years but develops rapidly by 8-9 years - E starts off quite high and develops quite consistently until 8-9 ◊ Both share emotionality - perhaps this is something to think about in early years to reduce internalisation

Answer 167

``` ○ Similar in age ○ Someone who is emotionally close ○ Shared intimacy - sharing and protecting information § Trust development ○ Non-familial ○ Voluntary ```

Answer 168

○ Homophilic - Share some sort of characteristic/interest/attitude ○ Reinforce tendencies ○ Mutual, reciprocal - Mutual- each person gets something from it - Recirpocal - each person contributes

Answer 169

○ Voluntary - Actively choose friends ○ Equal power dynamic - More so than in family ○ Transactional - Both people give something up and take something away ○ Important for wellbeing (not so unique) - Children with no close friends were found to have feelings of loneliness, isolation, inferiority, and low self-eficacy □ Can exacerbate into depression and anxiety in adolescence

Answer 170

○ Emotional support and validation - Helping someone feel better when things are difficult, and celebrating when things are going well - Help buffer against some unpleasant experiences - Offer stability during times of transition - Validate each other's worth - Validate each other's beliefs - Help the child calibrate their feelings about the world around them against evidence from their friends □ Self-concept - more reliant on perceptions of others ○ Development of cognitive skills - Based on reciprocal and equal nature - More likely to offer and accept constructive feedback with friends than other people □ Can test their understanding of a concept and develop mutually shared approaches to problems - Social constructivist approach to learning □ Students, children, friends, learn better by sharing and problem solving with each other □ Co-constructing knowledge ○ Development of social skills - Practice prosocial behaviour □ More complex context for learning these skills in friendships than siblings - can lose friendship, so conflict-resolution is very important

Answer 171

• Friendship groups that children (late childhood to late adulthood) voluntarily form or join ○ Usually between 3-9 people • Share something in common - some form of interest or attribute

Answer 172

○ Sense of belonging - Failure to conform can represent that a person doesn't belong in the group - Can result in rejection from the clique ○ Shared interest - Peer-pressure or self-selection □ Can be pressured into delinquency □ Or can be focused on academic achievement, community involvement - more adaptive and adjustive development - Shared interest is not necessarily spoken about - adds to fear of rejection ○ Context for socialisation - Gossiping and in-fighting □ Feeling as though they can disclose information with their friends is very important - don't always get things right □ Might be comfortable with sharing info, but do not keep info to themselves □ Can result in betrayal and hurt - important - Consequences are less serious than in adulthood when person is responsible for other people □ Use of conflict-resolution is very important for maintaining sense-of-self and sense of belonging ○ Unstable, transient membership - Can have polygamous clique membership □ Maintaining membership with different cliques, the child can test out different attributes about themselves and decide how important these are

Answer 173

``` - Neurological changes: □ Risk vs reward □ Learning - Cognitive changes □ Identity □ Self-concept - Social changes □ Peer-focused □ Independence - Emotion regulation changes □ Poor monitoring □ Poor modulation - Why adolescent relationships are both the best and the worst relationships at that time □ New emotions ```

Answer 174

○ Dangerous because it means adolescent is vulnerable to making bad decisions and poor judgements, that are heavily influenced by their predictions of their social environments ○ Some poor judgements can have consequences that affect the adolescent for the rest of their adult life - Patterns of youth criminal offenses - study □ Four patterns of behaviour - Low (majority of offenders) - not many offenses (av. 2) - Adolescent limited - (average of 19 offenses) - Late developing (average of 24 offenses) - High (average of 77 offenses) □ Patterns show an increase in criminal behaviour in mid adolescence - risk period across cultures

Answer 175

○ Said it wasn't a matter of whether they were guilty, but a matter of culpability ○ When offenders' culpability mitigated - The offender has diminished decision making capacity - The offender was coerced, under duress, provoked, under threat - If the act was out of character ○ Steinberg argued that all three apply to adolescents - Poor decision making capacity - Heightened arousal = more vulnerable to coercion, provocation - Identity (character) is still developing - can't say actions are 'in character'

Answer 176

○ 7 year US study ○ Severity and duration of punishments did not reduce likelihood of youths reoffending ○ Increased certainty of arrest did reduce likelihood of youths reoffending - Targeting specific offenses - Increase patrol and surveillence - Increasing risk perceptions of arrests ○ Makes clear the consequences - improves decision making ○ Certainty = clearer decisions around risk vs reward

Answer 177

• A peer is a non-familial, similarly-aged person. A person of similar age and status ○ Similar age means same life period, group of people the children spend the most time with • Peer context - complimentary but separate from family context

Answer 178

○ Peers make status judgements about each other, and children of different statuses can belong to the same peer group ○ Status is deemed by peer group, and that can affect their development ○ Can be measured by asking children the extent to which they accept/reject peers - Who do you like the most, who do you like the least - Average status □ not always mentioned, but when they are there is a balance between being liked the most and the least - Popular □ High-impact - many people have mentioned them in terms of liking them □ Popularity can be considered as aggressive and being a bully: aggression can be a result of assertion/control, but can become too aggressive - child becomes rejected - Rejected □ High-impact - many people mentioned them in terms of liking them the least □ Tend to have difficulty finding constructive solutions to social problems - can be too aggressive, can also be too withdrawn □ Associated with poorer academic outcomes, and potentially absenteeism - Neglected □ Aren't mentioned in either category □ Not necessarily something that affects the child - Controversial □ High-impact: high proportion saying they like this person the most, and a high proportion saying they like this person the least □ Tend to be aggressive and socially disruptive, but also cooperative, sociable, and developed cognitive capacity making them better at humour

Answer 179

• Peers can influence how people see other peers: prejudice • Prejudice ○ Preconceived ideas about a person or group - Usually (not always) negative and non- rationale □ Considered a major threat to social cohesion, especially for multiculturalsim □ Segregation is most common - Combination of emotional and social experiences □ Emotional: hatred, discrimination, and hostility by perpetrator, and anxiety, loneliness, depression and stigma for victim □ Developed with and enhanced by social experiences

Answer 180

○ Collected data from adolescents from 1 of 10 schools ○ T1 - aged 13-14 ○ T2: aged 15-16 ○ T3: aged 17-18 ○ Found that adolescents' immigrant prejudice increased slightly at T2 but decreased overall at T3 ○ Parents were stable at T1 & T2 but decreased at T3 ○ Friends were stable at T1 and T2, but decreased and became more diverse at T3 ○ Generally can say that adolescents had moderate prejudice which slightly decreased over time ○ How do friends and parents affect this? - By T3, those who had parents with lower prejudice also had substantially reduced prejudice compared to the rest of the group - Those whose parents had high prejudice - stable prejudice levels (higher than the rest of the group) - Same pattern was seen with friends' influence - Both friends and parents have direct impact on adolescents' prejudice levels ○ How do peers affect this? - Indirect influence - Buffered against impact of parents' prejudicial attitudes - When there is low diversity in classroom, there is a clear distinction between those whose parents have high, moderate, or low prejudice - High classroom diversity- overlap between three groups, smaller range, and all three groups have lower prejudice

Answer 181

• Many psychiatric disorders emerge in late adolescence period and all have genetic underpinnings ○ Also may be related to abnormal brain development (and genetics, environment, epigenetics)

Answer 182

○ Most complex system of which we know ○ Brain and CNS consist of trillions of highly specialised cells that work in synchrony - Chemical signals - Electrical signals ○ Larger and more complex than brains of other mammals ○ Not everything happens in brain

Answer 183

• Argument that we have 'two brains' • Brain makes up 2/3 of neuronal mass of body • Contains almost 3/4 of all our synapses • Enteric nervous system (gut) consists of sheaths of neurons embedded in the walls of the gut • Contains ~100 million neurons (more than spinal cord or peripheral NS) • Brain outsources digestion process to ENS • 90% of fibres in the vagus nerve carry information from the gut to the brain • ENS uses more than 30 neurotransmitters • 95% of body's serotonin is found in the bowels • Concept of brain in your gut - emerging area of research ○ New appreciation for how ENS has important role in regulating brain development and behaviour • Brain can influence microbial composition and function via endocrine and neural mechanisms

Answer 184

- Brain function is inherently linked to brain structure - Different parts of brain develop at different rates - Longitudinal studies provide data of age-related changes within an individual - Need to take into account heterogeneity - Grows at an astounding rate in early life - both in grey matter and white matter - Between 7th prenatal month and 1st birthday, brain increases in weight by ~1.7g/day - When baby is born, brain weights 25% of adult's brain weight - By age 2, it weighs 75% of adult's brain weight - Brain growth-spurt - Last 3 months prenatally and first 2 years after birth - Greatest amount of change occurs in early years • Cells have very specific roles to play and places to be in this brain development

Answer 185

○ Brain and spinal cord

Answer 186

○ Nerves attached to CNS that lie outside of CNS

Answer 187

○ The cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus

Answer 188

○ Neuron with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma

Answer 189

○ Chemical released by nerve terminal that has excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron

Answer 190

- Basic unit of the brain - All neurons have: - Cell body -Contains information needed to keep the cell functioning - Dendrites - Fibres that receive information from other cells and conduct that information towards the cell body in the form of electrical impulses - Axon - Fibre, anywhere from a few micrometers to over a meter in length - Conducts electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons - When brain is being formed, neurons migrate along pathways laid down by a network of guiding cells to form the major parts of the brain - Peaks at end of second trimester of pregnancy - Was established that formations of new neurons occur in hippocampus (important for learning) - and these new neurons occur throughout life - New discovery showed that there a no new neurons developed in hippocampus in adults - some in children, but none in adults - However, another paper said it did - Continuing debate

Answer 191

○ Sensory § Transmitting info from sensory receptors ○ Motor § Transmitting info from brain to muscles and glands, and for us to act ○ Interneurons § Connecting sensory and motor neurons

Answer 192

• Neurons assume specialised functions depending on where they migrate • Any neuron has potential to serve any neural purpose (pluripotency) ○ Pluripotency when they are first born - get guided along the networks to where they're meant to be ○ Then they specialise as that type of neuron at that spot ○ Depending on how specialised they are during development, they can be put somewhere else and change their specialisation before they're set in their ways

Answer 193

• Play a major role in communication with the brain by ○ Influencing the informtion and strengthening synapses ○ Producing myelin, that helps neurons conduct electrical messages along the neural network ○ Communicating amongst themselves in a network separate from the neural network • It is thought that people with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder may have a defect in a gene that regulates the production of myelin

Answer 194

○ Astrocyte - Most common - Mop up excess neurotransmitters emitted from synapses - Feed neurons by supplying nutrients and neurotransmitter precursors - Control where and when neurons will make new synapses ○ Oligodendrocyte - Wraps tips around the axons of neurons and extrude myelin, creating a sheath that help speed conduction of of electrical activity along the axon - Myelin is white matter of the brain ○ Schwann cells - Form a layer around the axon - Also helping to conduct electrical impulses - Only glial cells found in peripheral nervouse system - Act as Astrocyte in PNS ○ Microglia - Serve as immune system in the brain ○ NG2 cells - Precursor cells to oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and neurons

Answer 195

• Process of insulating axon of the neuron with white matter • 80% lipid, 20% protein • Produced by oligodendrocytes • Forms sheath that speeds up transmission of neural impulses • Allows for increasingly complex movements as baby develops ○ Baby's brain is grown, and also becoming more efficient in its conduction of information to the rest of its body • Infant's ability to process emotional expressions on another person's face may improve as this myelination occurs ○ May also underpin the development of the child's ToM

Answer 196

• Myelination begins at 7 months of gestation ○ Starts at back of brain ○ Spreads gradually to frontal lobe by 9 months postnatal ○ Continues to process in posterior-anterior direction, and also continues to work through to early adulthood - Reticular formation and frontal cortex are not fully myelinated at puberty - These areas of brain allow us to concentrate and make good decisions - May explain the lengthening of attention span as one grows up □ Adolescents may make worse decisions, and have poor attention spans - Enhances the efficiency of processing between the more primitive emotional subcortical areas of the brain and the more regulatory prefrontal cortical area □ May see more impulsive, emotion-driven behaviours in adolescents ○ When baby is born, there are strong connections between sense organs and brain - Allows baby to sense the world well - Important for baby to thrive - sense when it is too cold, and cry to express its discomfort

Answer 197

• Brain starts to develop in weeks 2 and 3, with folding and fusion of ectoderm to form the neural tube • At 4 weeks ○ Curling of brain - basic parts of brain developed • 3 months ○ Forebrain • 6 months ○ What starts to look like a proper brain, but is smaller than at 9 months • Following on is a sequence of events that are genetically determined, epigenetically directed, and environmentally influenced • Big changes in brain development between 6 month and 9 months prenatal ○ One of major changes - surface area of brain - Because baby's brain can't grow too much, it can't be too big - delivery would hurt - At 9 months - sulcus and gyri develop (and continue through first 3 years of life) • Growth of dendrites ○ Number of neurons doesn't increase - it decreases ○ Growth of dendrites of the neurons and arborization rapidly accelerate around the time of the 28th week of gestation onwards - Allows there to be more communication between smaller amount of neurons

Answer 198

○ Help keep synapses together ○ Play important role - in genetics of autism - In autism there are some genetic markers which affect neurexins

Answer 199

○ Formation of synapse connections between neurons ○ Proceeds rapidly during early brain growth spurt ○ Peak is at 34 weeks gestation in humans at rate of 40,000 new synapses per second ○ Continues in postnatal life with balance between number of synapses being eliminated and new synapses created ○ Number of synapses decreases during puberty

Answer 200

○ Neuron-to-neuron - Pre- and post-synaptic neuron ○ Neuron to glia synapse - NG2+ glia are relatively newly described glia

Answer 201

• Brain has evolved so that it produces an excess of neurons and synapses in preparation for receiving sensory and motor stimulation information from the world • Can't have very many neurons in the brain ○ Need to have selective cell death

Answer 202

• Neurons that successfully form connections with other neurons are allowed to live, but they crowd out the unsuccessful neurons ○ About half the neurons produced early in life also die early ○ Important so we can have successful and function brain that is not overpopulated, and the neurons are well connected • If neurons are not used, they will die via Apoptosis ○ Their connections will then also die - Synaptic pruning

Answer 203

* Surviving neurons form hundreds of synapses, many of which will disappear if the neuron is not properly stimulated * Neurons and their synapses that receive the most stimulation continue to function

Answer 204

• Young infant's brain is highly plastic ○ Effects which neurons will survive and which will undergo apoptosis and synaptic pruning ○ Cells are highly responsive to effects of experience that it will encounter early in life

Answer 205

○ Noted that when people had congenital cataracts removed, they had difficulties with recognising and interacting with forms (circles, squares, triangles) ○ Reared infant chimps in the dark for periods of up to 16 months ○ Showed that dark-reared chimps experienced atrophy of the retina and the neurons of the optic nerve ○ If chimp was exposed to light before 7 months of age, atrophy was reversed § This is a key period of sensitivity § If chimp wasn't exposed to light in this period, atrophy was irreversible and often led to total blindness if the deprivation lasted longer than a year

Answer 206

○ Rats in a standard cage (with nothing exciting in it) - Nerve cell is quite simple ○ Rats in enriched cage (with tunnels, wheels, ramps) - More growth of synapses and dendrites in nerve cells ○ If there are playmates, and large variety of toys - Better behaviour, healthier brain with more extensive networks of neural connections - If you take them out and put them in the boring environment, some of that brain complexity is lost ○ Extrapolation to children - Important to think about environment the child is being raised in, and types of exposure and environmental stimuli - how all that effects child's brain

Answer 207

• First area of cerebrum to mature: primary motor area and primary motor areas ○ Allows child to control arm movement etc ○ Allows child to see, hear, touch, taste, smell • At birth, basic primitive part of brain is really well developed ○ Subcortical brain areas - Control states of consciousness, inborn reflexes, vital biological functions • Surrounding these areas are the cerebrum and cerebral cortex - areas involved in voluntary movements, perception, higher intellectual activities ○ Develop later in person's life

Answer 208

○ DTI imaging used with data - From 103 healthy subjects - 221 scans from childhood to young-adulthood (5- 32 years) - Assessed 10 white matter tracts, brain volume, grey and white matter volumes ○ Looked at fractional anisotropy (reflects axon packing and myelination), mean diffusivity (reflects water content and density of white matter) ○ Findings - White matter volume increased significantly across age range - Grey matter volume decreased across age range - White matter increases were offset by grey matter decreases, so there was no overall change in total brain volume across age range - Heterogeneity within people in terms of what happens with their brains □ Some people showed a volume decrease or no change in white matter □ Some people showed volume increase or no change in grey matter - More rapid changes in early ages in FA, and decreases in MD, and slowing of change in young adulthood ○ Conclusions - Development occurs across all 10 major white matter tracts - This development continues during the twenties in several association tracts - These tracts support complex cognitive processing: inhibition, executive functioning, attention - White matter increase and grey matter decreases in most participants across age - Increase in white matter is underpinned by myelination, and decrease in grey matter reflects synaptic pruning and myelination converting it into white matter

Answer 209

○ Very rapid growth over the first 2 years of life ○ Prolonged period of physical development ○ Pubertal growth spurt - Tapers out for girls - occurs from 9.5 y/o - 14.5 y/o - For guys - starts on average between 10.5 and 16y/o, and ends between 13.5-17.5 y/o ○ At puberty girls' weight starts to taper out while boys spurts

Answer 210

- At birth, skeletal system is soft - soft cartilage □ Makes it easier to birth the baby - As baby grows, skeletal system gradually ossifies into bone □ Start to develop especially in ankles, wrists, feet, and hands as child grows - Can estimate level of child's physical maturation by x-ray of hand

Answer 211

- Newborns have all the muscle fibres they will ever need - Maturation of fibres occurs in early childhood and then accelerates in adolescence □ Especially in boys with increased release of testosterone

Answer 212

- Hyperthalamus has overseeing role In hormones - Sends signals through pituitary glands at base of brain - Then signals through to various places to produce hormones: - Thyroid - Adrenal glands - Pituitary gland - Testes - Ovaries

Answer 213

◊ Produces thyroxine | - Important for early brain and bone growth

Answer 214

◊ Produce androgens | - Important for muscular and bone growth

Answer 215

◊ Direct effect on growth hormone - Important for general body growth - Especially important for adolescent growth spurt

Answer 216

◊ Testosterone - Directs male reproductive organs before birth - Maturation of male reproductive organs - Voice changes - Facial and body hair - Secondary influence on muscular development, bone growth, and broadening of shoulders

Answer 217

◊ Estrogen - Maturation of female reproductive organs - Breast growth - Broadening of hips - Body hair

Answer 218

- Growth spurt - Menstruation □ Occurs between 10.5-15.5 y/o - Breast development: □ Starts between 8-13 □ Ends between 12-18 - Pubic hair □ Starts between 8-14 □ Ends between 9.5-14.5

Answer 219

- Growth spurt - Penis - Testes - Pubic hair - Big variation in time frame these all take place

Answer 220

○ Represents an international standard ○ Represents that best description of physiological growth for all children from birth to 18 years ○ It is not the aim to be as close to the mean as possible - it tells you the variation, but normal variation is expected - More important that child follows the trajectory It was on □ If there is a persistent drop over time that represents an issue

Answer 221

- Growth monitoring is conducted far less frequently - Purpose is different □ Assumed child is getting enough nutrition and parent will be aware of whether something is going wrong

Answer 222

- WHO recommends monthly growth monitoring of all children up to 18months - Growth monitoring often co-occurs with complex development programs aimed at improving nutrition and it is perceived to mobilize communities

Answer 223

- Feeding difficulties □ Suggest that a clinician will take a detailed history □ Offer detailed advice to mother - Chronic ill health □ Take a longer medical history □ Child may need to be treated or referred to specialist - Social deprivation □ A mix of inputs will be commonly applied - Intensive monitoring of child in home environment - Targeting health workers and health visitors to check on child

Answer 224

○ Nutrition ○ Illness ○ Quality of care child receives

Answer 225

○ Prolonged malnutrition has a more serious impact especially in the first 5 years of life ○ In many developing nations, as many as 85% of all children under 5 experience some form of malnutrition ○ One out of every four children aged under 5 is underweight for his or her age - At an increased risk of early death ○ Malnutrition contributes to death of about 5.6 million children under the age of 5 each year

Answer 226

Marasmus | Kwashiokor

Answer 227

- Affects babies who receive insufficient protein and calories - Can happen if mother is malnourished and doesn't have resources to offer an alternative to her breast milk - Or if child is separated from mother - Babies become very frail and wrinkled and growth stops □ Body tissues starts to waste away - Body starts to work through its own body protein to stay alive - If children survive - very small in stature and often suffer from impaired social and intellectual development

Answer 228

- Affects children who receive enough calories but not enough protein - In many poor nations one of the few high-quality sources of protein readily available is breast milk - So breast-fed infants do not ordinarily suffer from marasmus unless their mothers are severely malnourished - May develop kwashiokor if they are weaned off the breast but do not have another good source of protein - As the disease progresses, child's hair thins, the face, legs, and abdomen swell with water and skin lesions may develop

Answer 229

○ Dietary excess ○ Eating too many calories and not burning it off ○ Form of malnutrition ○ Depriving yourself of important nutrients you need because you're eating too much high-calorie foods ○ Increased risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart, liver, and kidney disease ○ Difficulties with friendships - Less likely to play sport - can have impact on children's ability to form friendships ○ Obesity epidemic - Estimated that there are 1 billion overweight people in the world - 300 million people who are obese - Combination of increased consumption of energy- dense foods and reduced phsycial exercise

Answer 230

○ Overeating can be habitual - Bad eating habits that can lead to obesity are often established early in life ○ Environmental influences - Parents using food to reinforce good behaviours - In some cultures, children having excess weight can be seen as positive □ As they get older changing eating habits might be difficult ○ More likely to be overweight/obese at 35-44 than 18-34 - Things happening in 30s and 40s □ Full-time careers □ Children □ Not as much time for exercise □ Changes in metabolism - need less food to maintain weight

Answer 231

○ Before vaccinations were available ○ Families sometimes would put all the family together - reduce time with other people, and get it out of the way - Mindset that you were going to get it anyway ○ Problem with this approach is that people can die from chickenpox - Can get injuries to the brain

Answer 232

``` ○ Highly contagious viral infection ○ Spreads by respiratory droplets - Sneezing - Coughing - Eating with same utensils ○ Vaccinated individuals have immunity ○ No treatment - Can cause complications □ High fever □ Brain damage □ Death ○ Major epidemic can be averted by large-scale vaccinations ```

Answer 233

○ Viral infection ○ Spread by respiratory droplets or direct contact with saliva ○ No treatment ○ Major complications with prenatal development

Answer 234

○ Contagious viral infection ○ Spread by respiratory droplets or direct contract with infected saliva ○ Painful swelling of salivary glands and testes for men (can lead to infertility ○ Can get it at any point in life ○ No treatment ○ Rise in cases - Thought they were driven by outbreaks in unis and colleges - Many of the people with recent cases of the mumps didn't have vaccinations

Answer 235

- Immunisation prevents illness, disability, and death from vaccine-preventable diseases ○ Immunisation currently averts an estimated 2-3 million deaths every year - An additional 1.5 million deaths could be avoided, however, if global vaccination coverage imporves ○ Around 19.4 million infants around the world are missing out on basic vaccines ○ Australia has nearly reached childhood vaccination coverage target of 95% - Means that when enough people are vaccinated against diseases to prevent them from spreading, provides herd immunity for indirect protection to unvaccinated people ○ To improve immunisation coverage in Australia - 'No pay no jab' □ Removed option of non-medical exemptions from vaccination requirements to receives certain family and childcare tax benefits

Answer 236

○ Can cause failure to thrive - Non-organic failure to thrive syndrome - Child has enough food, water, and vaccinations, but not enough love - Experience too much stress and too little affection from primary caregivers □ May result in lagging physical growth and motor co-ordination - When growth falls short of trajectory - taken into foster care □ Makes big improvement

Answer 237

- Sloping forehead - Protruding tongue - Short, stubby limbs - Slightly flattened nose - Almond-shaped eyes - May have congenital eye, ear, heart defects

Answer 238

□ Long thin structures that are pinched at a point (centromere), p-arm (shorter arm), and q-arm (longer arm) - Carries genetic information in a linear sequence

Answer 239

``` - chromatin □ Made of nucleic acids - DNA - RNA □ And proteins - Histones - Nonhistones ```

Answer 240

- Proteins help structure chromatin

Answer 241

``` during cell division processes □ Two types: - Mitosis - Meiosis - Otherwise they unfold and uncoil into a diffuse network within the nucleus ```

Answer 242

- Contains own set of DNA - Child receives mitochondria DNA from mother - Susceptible to mutations in DNA code that can carry diseases - Mitochondria disorders are passed from mother to all children causing diseases of varying severity - Possible to replace mitochondria in mother's egge with mitochondria from donor □ Child will inherit DNA from mother, father and donor: 'three parent baby' □ Baby inherits majority of DNA from parents and only about 1% from donor

Answer 243

○ Y chromosome is substantially smaller than X chromosome - Has less genetic material on it than other chromosomes

Answer 244

- Many X chromosome-related genetic disorders □ Cells turn off one X chromosome and randomly comprise extra genes in Barr body □ Important repercussions: - Some instances women can be protected from X-linked diseases - Others seem to promote conditions such as autoimmunity

Answer 245

- has an additional copy of chromosome 21

Answer 246

- Males with additional X chromosome - 1 in every 500-1000 males - One of most common chromosome abnormalities in humans - Can affect development ◊ May have weakened muscles and reduced strength ◊ Lagging physical development ◊ Less testosterone production - Taller, less muscular body ◊ Language development - Between 25 and 85% of XXY males have some language difficulties ◊ Tend to be less demanding and quieter than typical XY males

Answer 247

- Only 1 copy with X chromosome | - Associated with intellectual disabilities and movement control problems

Answer 248

- Extra Y chromosome

Answer 249

Phosphate group

Answer 250

Combination of base + phosphate group + sugar complex (2-deoxyribose)

Answer 251

used to describe a sequence of DNA situated on a specific region on a chromosome

Answer 252

○ Any portion of chromosomal material that potentially lasts for enough generations to serve as a unit of natural selection ○ Each gene has one or more specific effects upon the phenotype of the organism ○ Interesting things happening to genes - A gene can recombine with another gene - Gene mutations into different forms (bases can change within the gene structure so the same gene can code for the same output but vary with the bases within it) - Genes are expressed at different points in life □ Can be turned on and off by regulators - Can only influence development when it is turned on and expressed - For DNA to be imparted it must be transcribed

Answer 253

• Base of a gene can be transcribed by RNA complex because of complementary bases rule • Series of bases on RNA can be translated onto ribosomes into proteins via amino acids • Proteins are a collection of amino acids, which are encoded by transcription and translation system • The strand of DNA acts as a template for the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) • Like DNA, RNA forms stable structures by base pairing • DNA information can be copied to RNA for transcription and translation carried to other areas of the cell to create proteins • Messenger RNA carries instructions specifying the sequences of amino acids • Groups of three bases of mRNA (messenger RNA) serially code for each amino acid • These groups of 3 bases are call codons ○ This process is called translation • Potentially 64 possible codons, but only 20 different amino acids

Answer 254

``` • The end product of gene expression • Protein types ○ Enzymes ○ Haemoglobin - Carries oxygen in blood ○ Insulin - Allows us to be awake and functioning in digestion of food ○ Collagen - Connective tissue molecule ○ Keratin - In hair and nails ○ Histones - Important in helping to hold DNA in place ○ Actin and myosin - Keeping muscles active ○ Immunoglobulins - Immune system functioning ```

Answer 255

- About a third of human genes have two or more different forms called alleles - An alleles is one of two or more forms (or variations) of a gene - The alleles of a given gene influence the same trait or characteristic that we are interested in looking at • The different allele forms result in different outputs • Homozygous ○ The same base at that locus • Heterozygous ○ Different bases at that locus • Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) ○ Variation in one base pair

Answer 256

* The dominant allele is the form of the gene that is expressed if present * Recessive allele is expressed if no dominant allele is present

Answer 257

* Most likely under the governance of many genes rather than a single gene * Applies to most traits and behaviours of interest in behavioural science

Answer 258

• Heritable (but reversible) changes in gene expression that are not coded by the DNA sequence but by post- translational modifications in DNA, histone proteins, and in microRNA • Environment can produce persistent alterations in the phenotype and genotype through altering gene expression • Three types of modification of regulation of genes that are particularly important ○ Histone modification ○ DNA methylation ○ microRNA

Answer 259

* Idea that there is a hypothetical common ancestor to many living organisms, and these lifeforms when through mitochondira process * Through time there were changes in development distinguishing species * Due to shared evolutionary history, we share many characteristics and developmental processes with other living things

Answer 260

○ The way our brains might function - Large number of neurons that are elaborately connected - Functional specialisation especially around cortical areas - Debatable though

Answer 261

- Process through which gametes have half of their process ○ Type of cell division ○ Necessary for cell reproduction ○ Mother and father's chromosomes merge together in production of gametes ○ Go through 2 cell division process to produce 4 new cells ○ DNA is replicated, recombined and cell divides twice ○ After recombination the chromosomes are no longer identical to those inherited by the parents - Important source of genetic variation - Genetic variation is generates is major advantage in survival □ New combinations could be more fit for the new world

Answer 262

500 million sperm released

Answer 263

• Sperm physiology - pointed head contain genetic info and long tail that whips sperm forward • Sperms travel ~6 hours (6-7 inches) to go through vagina, uterus, and fallopian tube • Only about 200 ever get close to ovum • What goes wrong? ○ Sperm tails may get tangled ○ Wrong fallopian tube ○ Abnormal shapes - Mega head - Tiny head - Double head - Double tails - Hinders process of travelling quickly to ovum

Answer 264

○ While sex ratio at conception is unbiased, more male embryos were abnormal than female embryos - Male embryos miscarry at a much higher rate ○ Sex ratio increases for males at 10-15 weeks - Excess in female mortality ○ Levels off at 20 weeks, then slowly declines 28-35 weeks, with another excess in male mortality ○ Slight male bias at birth ○ Often observed that there is vulnerability in being male - Boys are more likely to suffer from environmental disorders such as ASD, ADHD, dyslexia, schizophrenia, and mental retardation - Adolescent boys are more impulsive and take more risk - Also more likely to commit suicide/die violently - Have shorter lifespan than females

Answer 265

``` ○ Period of zygote - 0-14 days - From conception to implantation into wall of uterus ○ Period of embryo - 3wk-8wk - Virtually all major organs are formed - May not be apparent to woman that she is pregnant yet ○ Period of fetus - Wk 9 - birth - All major organs begin to function and the developing organism grows ```

Answer 266

○ First thing that happens - penetration of sperm into egg - Only one ever breaks through, then ovum closes over ○ Chemical reaction seals membrane preventing other sperm from entering ○ Tail of sperm falls off, sperm head opens up and all the chromosomal contents go into ovum - nuclei of two games merge - Forming zygote ○ Within 12 hours of fertilisation, zygote splits into equal parts, each containing a full set of genetic material - Process called mitosis

Answer 267

○ Happens very quickly ○ Mitosis is a process of cell replication and division, in which the cell separates the chromosomes in the cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei ○ These two daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and their parent cell

Answer 268

○ Single cell containing 46 chromosomes ○ Replicates DNA and divides many times - over the course of 38wk pregnancy forming baby ○ Within 4 days of conception, a ball-like structure forms containing 60-80 cells - Called the Blastocyst ○ Implants itself into the uterus wall between 8 and 14 days from conception - Zygote develops small tendrils that emerge out from its outer surface - heads towards uterine wall - Tendrils burrow inwards, latch on and begins tapping into the woman's blood supply □ Process of implantation ○ Rates of success - Only half of all fertilised ova are firmly implanted - As many as half of such implants are genetically abnormal or fail to develop, or burrow into a site incapable of sustaining them - 3/4 of zygotes fail to survive this initial phase of development

Answer 269

○ Through cell differentiation, blastocyst keeps dividing ○ The inner cell mass becomes embryo, and the rest of the cells become amniotic sac and placenta ○ Four major support structures supporting embryo - Amnion □ Watertight sac filled with fluid, acting as a cushion, regulating temperature and providing a weightless environment - Chorion □ Membrane surrounding the amnion and eventually becomes placenta lining - Placenta - Allantois □ Forms the umbillical cord ○ Inner cell mass has three layers - Ectoderm □ Top layer □ Becomes nervous system, nails, teeth, inner ears, eye lens, and outer layer of skin - Mesoderm □ Middle layer □ Becomes bones, muscles, circulatory system, inner layers of skin, and other internal organs - Endoderm □ Bottom layer □ Digestive tract, lungs, urinary tract, glands

Answer 270

○ U-shaped groove that forms down the centre of the top layer and the ends of the U fuse together creating neural tube ○ One end will swell and form the brain, the rest will form spinal cord

Answer 271

• Identical (monozygotic) ○ 1 fertilised egg that develops into 2 cells ○ Single zygote divides into 2 • Fraternal (dizygotic) ○ Two fertilised eggs ○ 2 eggs are released during menstrual cycle, and are both successful fertilised ○ Develop into 2 single zygotes

Answer 272

• From 5-6 weeks after conception, organism move spontaneously ○ embryo can bend its head, spine, and have hiccups (from 7 wks), can move arms and legs, wiggle fingers, move head and eyes, yawn, swallow, breathe amniotic fluid, somasaults • By 12 weeks, fetus can perform most movements that are present at birth • Activity levels of fetus correlate to activity levels of child later on ○ Prenatal-postnatal continuity in activity levels

Answer 273

○ Tactile stimulation ○ Taste stimulation - Sweet tooth - swallows more amniotic fluid when it is sweet than when it isn't ○ Smell stimulation ○ Hearing stimulation - Can hear mother's heart beat, her breathing, swallowing, and digestive system - In last trimester, noises from outside uterus can illicit changes in fetus' movement and heart rate

Answer 274

○ In last 3 months of pregnancy, CNS has developed so much that fetus can learn - Know this through habituation studies - measuring heart rate in utero - From this, know they have preference for familiar sounds, smells, and tastes antenatally □ Prefer familiar stories □ Prefer mother's voice and language - Neonate association learning □ Oral motor patterns and altered milk flow (need to know how to suck the nipple, which can also help milk flow) □ Cross-sensory learning - Puff of air on babies' eyes, followed by a sound - influence them to close eyes when they hear sound □ Conditioning to tactile and taste stimuli

Answer 275

-External environmental agents that can cause damage or death during prenatal period - ~45% of pregnancies abort within first 3 weeks - Of the pregnancies the woman is aware of, ~15-20% fail to continue - Sensitive periods for each of the major organs in developing organism - Many teratogens can only cause an effect if the fetus is exposed to it during that sensitive period • Most organs are at their most vulnerable at 3-8 weeks

Answer 276

○ Ability of fetus to metabolise alcohol is very low ○ Liver doesn't function as well in fetus as in an adult, and has smaller mass § The effect of alcohol is greater on fetus than on mother ○ Outcomes § Physical rowth retardation § Minor physical abnormality § Poor motor skills § Difficulty paying attention § Lower intellectual ability § Verbal learning deficits ○ Risks are greatest if pregnant woman is binge drinking (5+ drinks in 1 period) ○ No well-defined sensitive period for alcohol ○ Can also affect male reproductive system § Reduced sperm motility § Lower sperm count § Abnormally formed sperm ○ Fetal alcohol syndrome § Microencephaly (small head) § Malformations of heart, limbs, joints, and face § More likely to be irritable, hyperactive, have seizures and tremors § Smaller and lighter than normal - physical growth lags behind that of normal age- mates - Display lower IQ

Answer 277

○ Drug used in 1950s and 60s as antinausea pill for morning sickness ○ Potent effect on embryo and fetus - Sensitive period - major limb deformities if mother took pill between wk 4 and 6 after conception □ At 21 days - baby likely to be born without ears □ Between 25 and 27 days - babies had no arms or grossly defomred arms □ Between 28 and 36 days - child may have deformed legs or no legs □ If taken 40 days or later, usually no effect ○ Most mothers who took thalidomide had no birth defects - Illustrates the dramatic differences that individuals display in response to teratogens

Answer 278

○ Timing of teratogen can have big impact on the structures being formed in developing life form ○ Relationship between external agent, baby's genotype and environmental impact - Not all babies are impacted - depends on genetics and environmental agent ○ Same defect can be caused by different teratogen, and also a variety of defects can be caused by the same teratogen ○ The longer the exposure or higher the dose, the greater the harm ○ Father and mother exposure has effects - Father through sperm ○ Long-term effects often depend on postnatal environment ○ Sleeper effects - Occur in prenatal period but they aren't apparent at birht - become apparent later

Answer 279

○ Link between mothers who had rubella early in pregnancy and babies who were born blind - Also noticed that mothers with rubella often bore children with deafness, cardiac abnormailites and mental retardation ○ Sensitive period at 8 weeks of pregnancy with rubella - 60-85% of babies whose mothers had rubella had a birth defect - Reduced to 50% if mothers were infected in weeks 9-12, then to 16% for mothers infected in weeks 13- 20 ○ Young adults who were exposed to rubella in utero - Displayed higher risk for development of psychotic disorders than those not exposed □ Sleeper effects

Answer 280

``` • Babies sleep around 16 hours a day as a newborn ○ 8 hours of active sleep § Rapid eye movements (REM) § Distinctive EEG pattern § Little bits of body movement § Irregular heartbeat and breathing ○ 8 hours of quiet sleep § Absence of body and eye movements § Slow brain activity § Regular breathing and heart rate ○ Lots of variability in sleep needs and quality • Takes 4-6months for baby to settle into sleeping pattern ○ Changes again at 13-14 months - babies start to walk, are overstimulate and brain starts to change again • 1 hour drowsy • 2.5 hours alert awake • 2.5 hours active awake • 2 hours crying ```