Developmental Area

Question 1

Developmental Area

Answer 1

• Lifespan, moral development, emotional development
• Assumes that behaviour changes over time due to changes in people’s cognitive, social and physiological abilities
• Development is an on-going process; changes occur over a person’s lifetime due to inherited factors and/or lifetime experiences, as it is holistic and accounts all different causes of change in behaviour
• Focuses on children as they are going through the crucial stages of development and the development of children has a long term affect on behaviour e.g. fixation in psychosexual development

Question 2

Developmental Strengths

Answer 2

• Holistic: considers many approaches and has many useful applications to child care and education
• Scientific: methods used to look into the biological aspects of development

Question 3

Developmental Weaknesses

Answer 3

• Deterministic: assumes that what happens within childhood affects our adulthood which may place blame on upbringing
• Ethnocentric: considers child rearing studies in western cultures but may not be applicable around the world

Question 4

Behaviourist Perspective

Answer 4

• Nurture, conditioning, vicarious reinforcement
• Assumes that we learn how to behave through life experiences and external processes e.g. classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory
• Classical conditioning says behaviour can be modified through association as neutral stimuli can have the same effect of trigger stimuli
• Operant conditioning is when behaviour is modified through consequences of reward and punishment
• Social learning is when observing role models and imitating them modifies behaviour

Question 5

Behaviourist Strengths

Answer 5

• Deterministic: improves our understanding of behaviour as it is determined by learning
• Scientific: experiments and methods carried out e.g. Pavlov’s dog

Question 6

Behaviourist Weaknesses

Answer 6

• Ethnocentric: experiments based on individuals in the western culture may not apply to other cultures
• Reductionist: simplistic perspective as there are other explanations for behaviour that are dismissed

Question 7

Bandura Context

Answer 7

• SLT says aggressive behaviours are learned through reinforcement and imitation

Question 8

Bandura Aim

Answer 8

• To investigate whether aggressive behaviour can be learned through imitation of an observed role model

Question 9

Bandura Method

Answer 9

• A field experiment with a match participant design

Question 10

Bandura Sample

Answer 10

• 72 children from Stanford University Nursery School (36 boys and 36 girls) aged between 3 and 5
• And two adult ‘models’ one male and one female

Question 11

Bandura Procedure

Answer 11

• Observations of aggression physically, verbally, towards inanimate objects and ‘aggressive inhibition’ were done so each group had equally aggressive children, based on the overall combined score they were rated

Question 12

Bandura Phase 1

Answer 12

• Each child was taken to a room with toys including a 5-foot inflatable bobo doll and a mallet
• The model was there and they were left for 10 minutes
• Either in the condition with the model being aggressive, non-aggressive or control group (did not do this phase)

Question 13

Bandura Phase 2

Answer 13

• Children were each taken to a room with attractive toys and told they couldn’t play with them
• This was so children in the non-aggressive condition had a reason to behave aggressively

Question 14

Bandura Phase 3

Answer 14

• The children were taken to another room, which had some aggressive toys e.g., mallet, non-aggressive e.g. farm animal and a 3-foot bobo doll
• The child played for 20 minutes, while an experimenter watched and observers in a one-way mirror used a time sampling method to record what happened every 5 seconds
• They looked at: imitated physical aggression, imitated verbal aggression, and imitated non-aggressive verbal responses and non-imitated physical and verbal aggression

Question 15

Bandura Results

Answer 15

• Children in aggressive condition imitated both aggressive and non-aggressive acts
• Those in non-aggressive condition imitated a little of the behaviour as they spent more time just sitting, boys imitated more physical aggression than girls, and imitated more of the same sex model aggression

Question 16

Bandura Conclusion

Answer 16

• Children can learn aggressive behaviour by observing adults and this can be in the absence of classical or operant conditioning as there were no rewards

Question 17

Bandura Evaluation

Answer 17

• Research Method: it had good controls which enhances it’s validity due to control of extraneous variable, it also had matched participants design to control participants variables
• Data: collected both quantitative and qualitative data
• Ethics: teachers gave consent in place of the parents and parents had also agreed, exposing children to aggressive behaviour can be seen as causing them harm
• Validity: standardised procedure for children e.g. toys were always placed in the same order in the observation room, children were pre-tested for a matching pairs design with less participant variables but there was no ‘long-term’ follow-up so no information on if they carried on behaving in the same way
• Reliability: highly replicable as it was replicated by many children but sample may not have been large enough to establish reliable effects
• Sample: only a sample of children so does not represent adults which limits the generalisability of the results
• Ethnocentrism: it was carried out on American children, so children of other cultures may not react in the same ways

Question 18

Chaney Context

Answer 18

• Operant conditioning is when behaviour that brings a rewarding response and is learned to be repeated

Question 19

Chaney Aim

Answer 19

• Can behavioural techniques such as operant conditioning and positive reinforcement be used to improve the treatment of children with asthma?

Question 20

Chaney Method

Answer 20

• A field experiment in the participant’s homes having a repeated measures design, the IV was whether the child used a standard inhaler or an inhaler with the Funhaler spacer device

Question 21

Chaney Sample

Answer 21

• 32 children aged between 1.5 to 6 years prescribed drugs delivered by inhaler and a new spacer advice
• The parents provided informed consent and participated by completing questionnaires after 2 weeks of using the normal inhaler or Funhaler

Question 22

Chaney Procedure

Answer 22

• The standard inhaler and Funhaler devices were compared to ensure they delivered the same amount of the drug
• The Funhaler has a whistle and sounds and a spinner/ball that rolls when the inhaler is used correctly, these toys amuse the children and provide positive reinforcement to encourage the children to use the inhaler correctly and make using the inhaler a rewarding experience
• The children use the standard inhaler for 2 weeks, the parents complete the questionnaires, the children use the Funhaler for 2 weeks and the parents complete questionnaires

Question 23

Funhaler Results

Answer 23

• 66% more children took the recommended dose of medication when using the Funhaler than when using the normal inhaler
• Parents reported significantly more success at medicating their children 22/30 always successful in comparison to using their existing spacer device 3/30 success
• Using the Funhaler was associated with increased child and parent adherence to their recommended treatment plan

Question 24

Chaney Conclusion

Answer 24

• Improved adherence to medical advice can be achieved if treatment provides a rewarding experience for the children, which is why the Funhaler may be a useful device in managing and treating young child asthmatics

Question 25

Chaney Evaluation

Answer 25

• Research Method: it was a field experiment in the participant’s regular settings
• Data: the data collected was quantitative e.g. the yes/no questions from the questionnaire given to the parents made for direct comparisons
• Ethics: ethical guidelines were adhered to and due to use of repeated measures design none of the participants missed out on the beneficial effects of the Funhaler intervention
• Validity: self report from parents was used and the problem with this is the issue of social desirability
• Ecological validity: natural setting of the research being in the child’s home gave it high ecological validity
• Reliability: although it was a field experiment some aspects of it were standardised making it replicable; questionnaire was the same for each participant and they all used the Funhaler for the same period of time
• Sample: narrow age range of children restricts the generalisability but their sample is appropriate for their target population as the Funhaler would appeal to children of this age range
• Ethnocentrism: sample was from Australia so it isn’t known if the Funhaler would appeal equally to children from all cultures

Question 26

Kohlberg Context

Answer 26

• Kohlberg’s theory is based on Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and is a more gradual process, systematic three-levels with six-stages reflected by changes in moral judgement

Question 27

Kohlberg Aim

Answer 27

• Can changes in the development of moral reasoning be measured?

Question 28

Kohlberg Method

Answer 28

• A longitudinal case research using the self report method

Question 29

Kohlberg Sample

Answer 29

• 75 boys from Chicago were followed for 12 years
• At three-year intervals from 10-16 and 22-28
• This was also carried out in Taiwan, Canada, Mexico and Great Britain

Question 30

Kohlberg Procedure

Answer 30

• The boys were given a hypothetical moral dilemmas an example being a scenario of Heinz who had a dying wife from cancer and not enough money to buy a new drug to save her
• The local chemist refused to let him buy the drug cheaper and pay later then he was desperate and broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug
• They were asked questions e.g. “should Heinz have stolen the drug?” or “would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?” responses were analysed based on the levels of moral reasoning

Question 31

Pre-conventional [Kohlberg]

Answer 31

• Stage 1: goodness/badness is based on consequences

- Stage 2: children conform to rules in order to gain rewards

Question 32

Conventional [Kohlberg]

Answer 32

• Stage 3: the good boy/good girl stage where children obey rules to gain praise
• Stage 4: focus on rules being obeyed as social order and laws are important

Question 33

Post-conventional [Kohlberg]

Answer 33

• Stage 5: moral actions are those that express the will of the majority (democracy)
• Stage 6: universal ethical principles based on universal justice and respect for human rights

Question 34

Kohlberg Results

Answer 34

• The children’s levels of morality were determined by analysing the reasons behind their answers
• For example: in stage 1 a child might say “Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because he might go to jail”
• In stage 4 a teenager might say “Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because it’s against the law”
• In stage 5 an adult might say “Heinz should steal the drug because his wife’s life is more important than the law”

Question 35

Kohlberg Conclusion

Answer 35

• There are three levels and six stages in the development of moral reasoning and these are measurable
• People can only pass the levels in order and not everyone will achieve all the stages

Question 36

Kohlberg Evaluation

Answer 36

• Method: the study is longitudinal over a period of 12 years which controls participant variables but not extraneous ones of upbringing which might influence behaviour
• Data: qualitative data provided detail into how they justified their response to the moral dilemma so his interpretations may be subjective and hard to compare
• Ethics: they consented to take part and could withdraw by not returning to continue
• Validity: lacks ecological validity as how they think people should act in a moral dilemma may differ to if they were actually in the situation, also chance of social desirability from self report
• Reliability: the use of a large sample and standardised procedure but the times are different now so data may not be valid for people of today
• Sample: sample of only males so isn’t representative and reduces generalisability
• Ethnocentrism: cross-cultural demonstrates that his theory of moral development doesn’t just apply to Americans

Question 37

Lee Context

Answer 37

• Kohlberg suggests that there are three levels and six stages of moral reasoning and this develops the same in all cultures
• Sweetser argues that understanding of lying is influenced by the cultural norms and moral values of the individual

Question 38

Lee Aim

Answer 38

• To compare Chinese and Canadian children’s moral evaluations of lying and truth telling in situations involving pro-social and anti-social behaviours

Question 39

Lee Method

Answer 39

• Cross-cultural research with a quasi experiment and an independent design

Question 40

Lee Sample

Answer 40

• 120 Chinese children from the elementary school in Zhejiang Province
• 108 Canadian children from the elementary school in New Brunswick
• The children were 7, 9 and 11 years old

Question 41

Lee Procedure

Answer 41

• The children were presented with four stories: two involved a child intentionally carrying out a good deed and the other involved a child intentionally carrying out a bad deed
• Half of the children were in the “social story condition” where the child carried out a deed directly affecting another child and the other half were in the “physical story condition” with the child carrying out a deed involving only physical objects
• An example of a physical story with a lie in a pro-social setting is: Alex’s class has stayed inside because of bad weather and he decides to tidy up the class for his teacher but denied knowing who had cleaned it when asked by his teacher
• The children were asked to rate both the story character’s deed and verbal statement as naughty or good e.g. “is what Alex did good or bad?” and “is what Alex said to his teacher good or bad?”

Question 42

Lee Results

Answer 42

• The Chinese children rated truth telling less positively and lie telling more positively in pro-social settings than Canadian children; modesty is emphasised in the Chinese culture
• Both Chinese and Canadian children rated truth telling positively and lie telling negatively in anti-social situations; distinction between lying and telling the truth is emphasised in both cultures

Question 43

Lee Conclusion

Answer 43

• Specific social and cultural norms have an impact on children’s developing moral judgments, which in turn are modified by age and experience in a particular culture
• There is also a close relationship between socio-cultural practice and moral judgment

Question 44

Lee Evaluation

Answer 44

• Method: the snapshot study collected data from all participants in one go and was able to see if children of different ages gave different responses by making it cross-sectional
• Data: the dependent variable was measured quantitatively by giving the children a seven point semantic rating scale and also qualitatively as they gave reasons for the options they chose
• Ethics: the participating children, their parents and schools gave consent for children to take part, and they were also given illustrations along with the stories so they wouldn’t be upset as some involved children being pushed down and crying
• Validity: the procedure used was standardised with many controls e.g. the stories were similar, children were randomly allocated to conditions and counterbalancing controlled order effects such
• Reliability: the sample was large enough to establish consistent effect
• Sample: sample children from similar backgrounds with an even gender split, however all children were from more urban centers so could differ with those in rural areas/villages
• Ethnocentrism: cross-cultural study which is representative of both ‘western’ and ‘eastern’ cultures

Question 45

Developmental Studies

Answer 45

Bandura - Transmission Of Aggression

Chaney - Funhaler

Kohlberg - Stages Of Moral Development

Lee - Evaluations Of Lying & Truth Telling