Designs and Causality

Question 1

Simpsons Paradox

Answer 1

Simpsons Paradox is an extreme from of the fact that observed association can be misleading when there are lurking variables
–> conclusions that seem obvious when we look at aggregated data can become quite different when the data are examined in more detail

Question 2

Causation

Answer 2

when you manipulate X —> Y changes

–> all other factors are held fixed and only X causes the change

Question 3

Common response

Answer 3

When an observed association between X and Y is explained by a lurking variable Z
–> both X and Y change in resonse to Z

Question 4

Causal relationship

Answer 4

• -> experimental research
• one variable directely influences another
  1. unidirectional
  2. bidirectional

Question 5

Correlational research

Answer 5

–> correlation research
Changes in one variable accompany changes in the other variable, but there haven´t been enough tests to establish that either variable actually causes changes in the other

Question 6

Conditions for inferring causal relationships

Answer 6

1. Covariation
2. Precedence - the hypothesized causal variable must reliably precede the effect variable
3. Logical Mechanism - Plausability

Question 7

Mediator variable

Answer 7

X does not directly influence Y ,but only indirectely via Z

–> Z is the mediator variable

Question 8

Moderator variable

Answer 8

The relationship between X and Y differs according to the values of Z
–> Z acts as the moderator variable - likke a gate

Question 9

Cross-sectional Design

Answer 9

Type of a correlational design

–> measurements are mad at the same point of time

Question 10

Longitudinal Design

Answer 10

Type of a correlational design

–> measurements are madde at two or more different time points

Question 11

Third variable/lurking variable problem

confounding

Answer 11

Correlation between variables could be due to a third variable that is not discovered yet

Question 12

Directionality Problem

Answer 12

With only a correlational study it is impossible to determine unambiguously whether variable A causes variable B or vice versa

Question 13

Independent Variable

Answer 13

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

Question 14

Dependent Variable

Answer 14

The variable you observe and that gets influenced by the independent variable

Question 15

Extraneous variable

Answer 15

Variable that may affect behaviour, but that is not of interest

Question 16

Quasi Experiment

Answer 16

like an experiment but does not directly manipulate one variable. It tries to isolate a casual influence by selection rather than manipulation. Select cases in which X varies instead of varying x

Question 17

Quasi independent variable

Answer 17

in experimental design, any of the personal attributes, traits, or behaviours that are inseparable from an individual and cannot reasonably be manipulated. These include gender, age, and ethnicity

Question 18

Developmental

Answer 18

1. Cross-sectional Design –> selecting data from a population at a specific point of time
   - -> participants from each age group
2. Longitudinal Design –> a single group of participants is followed over a time period

Question 19

Generation effect

Answer 19

Influences of different generations on experience which become confounded with the effects of age
–> in cross-sectional design

Question 20

Cross-generational effect

-developmental design

Answer 20

conclusion drawn from examinated generation may not apply to another generation

Question 21

Multiple observation effect

-developmental design

Answer 21

1. Improvement of the test over time may be related to increasing experience and not age –> carryover effect
2. Other factors tend to arise and become confounded with age –> history effect

Question 22

Outcome research

Answer 22

investigates the effectiveness of treatment

–> goal: to determine whether a treatment produces a substantial or clinically significant effect

Question 23

Process research

Answer 23

attempts to identify the active components of the treatment