demographic change stats and sociologists Flashcards
What Acts in the UK limited immigration from the Caribbean and the Asian subcontinent?
Commonwealth Immigration Acts 1962/1968.
Immigration and Asylum Act 1999
Mitchell and Pain
Drivers of immigration
Economic growth and a structural demand for migrant labour in high and low skilled sectors of the British economy are significant drivers of immigration.
Cohen
3 types of migrant
- Citizens - full citizenship rights.
- Denizens - privileged foreign nationals welcome by the state.
- Helots - unskilled, poorly paid work, legally ties to particular employers.
Ehrenreich and Hochschild
Feminisation of migration
See the feminisation of migration as a result of several trends:
- Expansion of service industry in developed countries has led to an increase demand for female labour.
- Western women joining the labour force are less willing/ able to perform domestic labour.
- Western men are unwilling to perform domestic labour.
- The failure of the state to provide adequate childcare.
Shutes
Feminisation of migration
40% of adult care nurses in the UK are migrants, mostly female and there is a global transfer of women’s emotional labour.
Eade
Migrant identities
Found second generation of Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchal identities seeing themselves as Muslims first, then Bengali, then British.
Rate of migration between 2000-2013
Migration rate has been speeding up, between 2000-2013 international migration increased by 33%.
Pew research centre 2017
Estimates between 800,000 and 1.2 million unauthorised migrants living in the UK in 2017.
End of March 2014 how many seeking asylum in the UK?
24,000
Vertovec
Greater cultural diversity
‘super diversity’ With migrants coming form a wider range of countries.
UK 2014 post graduate students
26% Chinese born compared to 23% UK born.
Erkisen
Created transnational identities
Back and forth migration rather than permanent settlement means migrants are less likely to see themselves belonging to one country/ culture instead develop transnational identities.
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim
Changing families
Growth of ‘world families’ and ‘distant love’ where relationships are conducted between people living in different countries.
Chambers
Changing families
There are more global family networks as migrants in the UK try to maintain relationships and send money to their families in other countries.
2010 Report from ACPO
suggests 17,000 of the estimated 30,000 women involved in off street prostitution in England and Wales were migrants and around 70% were victims of trafficking.
2011 UK population
10% were from a non-white ethnic group.
Castles and Kosack
assimilation
Believe that assimilation benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided working class and preventing united action in the defence of their interests.
Castles
assimilation
Argues assimilation policies are counterproductive as they mark out minorities as culturally backwards or ‘other’ which can lead to minorities emphasising difference.
Life expectancy changes from 1900 - 2013
1900 males born in England expected to live until they were 50 (women = 57).
2013 Men expected to live until they are 90.7 (women = 94).
Harper
Increasing life expectancy
Predicts that if the trend to longer lifespan continues we will soon achieve ‘radical longevity’ with many centenarians.
Centenarians
Currently 10,000 in the UK by 2100 estimated to be 1 million.
Walker
Class, gender and regional differences in life expectancy
Those living in the poorest areas of England die on average 7 years earlier than the richest areas.
Mckeown
Improved hygiene, sanitation and medicine
Environmental changes along with better living conditions and diet were more important than advancing medicine in wiping out diseases.
McKeown
Higher living standards
examples of better living standards:
higher wages, better food, more appliances in the home, greatly improved housing conditions with less damp, inside toilets and running hot water.
Better nutrition has reduced death rates in half.
ONS infant mortality 1994-2014
Fallen from 9.4 to 3.9 per 1,000 live births in England and Wales.
The Clear Air Acts
Reduced pollution such as smog of 1952 that led to 4,000 deaths in 5 days.
Harper
Health education
Suggests the UK may be moving to an American health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but where a long lifespan is achieved through costly medication.
Phillipson - Marxist
Older people and identity
The old are of no use to capitalism as they aren’t productive.
Spijker and Maclnnes
When is old?
Although there are now more people over 65 than under 15 in the UK older people are effectively living ‘younger’ healthier and fitter than previous generations.
Laslett
Active aging and the third age
Developed the concept of the ‘third age’ to describe how the increase in life expectancy, growing economic security and relatively young age of retired people who can find fulfilment in a prolonged ‘third age’.
Marhankova
Active aging and the third age
Freedom from demands of the labour market, longer lives, more free time and better health lets the elderly enjoy the ‘third age’ where they can develop new lifestyles, seize new opportunities and forge new identities, independently of the traditional structures of the workplace.
Marhankova
Active aging
A new way of looking at old age in which activity plays a crucial role.
Pensioners and poverty
2017 16% of pensioners lived below government poverty line.
Brannen
Beanpole families
Rise in 4 generational families with fewer aunts and uncles and cousins due to families having fewer children in the past 20 years.
Family members are now more likely to experience vertical integrational ties. The ‘pivot generation’ sandwiched between older and younger members is increasingly meeting the demands of elderly parents and grandchildren.
Lawton
Aging population boosts economy
Aging population brings the mergence of new markets.
Department of culture, media and sports taking part survey 2013-14
Found nearly 4.9 million people 65 and over in England took part volunteering or in civic engagement activities.
2013 Legal and Gnerals Value of a Paent survey
Found grandparents helped parents for an average 8 hours week which if paid would cost a weekly average of £73.
The Griffiths Report 1988
Saw society facing the problem of meeting the escalating costs of health and social care for growing numbers of old people.
Hirsch
Growing burden of dependence and the pensions time bomb
Recognises that there needs to be a cultural change in our attitudes towards old age as a social construct.
How many women were on contraception in 1962 compared to 2014?
1962 = 50,000
2014 = 2 million
Aviva
Rising costs of having children
Suggests that the average size of a British family is declining due to costs.
Hirsch
Rising costs of having children
Estimated each child costs a couple nearly £154,000 to the age of 18.
Reasons for the decline in birth rate, fertility rate and average family size
- Contraception
- Compulsory education
- Rising costs of having children
- Changing position of women
- Declining infant mortality rate
- Geographically mobile workforce
- Changing values
Changing position of women
- Wilkinson - genderquake describes the radical changes in attitudes towards family.
- Harper - education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth and fertility rate.
- Sharpe - priorities of girls have changed - 1976 = love, marriage, husbands, children, job careers - 1994 = job career and being able to support themselves.
- McRobbie - aspiration of motherhood and marriage has been replaced with a desire for a degree rewarding career.
- Many women now working means they will limit the number of children until careers are established.
- Last 30 years there has been a decrease in fertility rate for women under 30 and an increase in women 35-39 and 40+ and why the average number of live births 40+ has more than quadrupled.
- 20% of women born in 1967 were childless age 45 compared to 11% of those born in 1940.
Declining infant mortality rate
- Abscence of welfare state until 1940s means parents relied on their children to care for them in old age.
- Harper - parents often had many children to safeguard against some of them dying.
- Infant mortality and death ratews declined leading to fewer people dying before adulthood and old age - parents no longer need to have as many children to provide security for them.
Geographically mobile workforce
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- Encouragment of smaller nuclear families as they can easily pack up and move often away from supported kin.
Changing values
- Parenthood involves more pressure on couples, lifelong commitment, loss of freedom and independence and sacrifices such as cuts in money.
- Beck and Beck-Gernshein - growing individualisation means more choice for women.
- Postmodernism - couples are reluctant to have children.
What did the family policy studies centre find in 2000?
- That 1/5 women aged 40 had no children compared to 1/10 in 1980.
- ONS notes more British women are childless than in other European countries.
What does Hakim argue voluntary childlessness is?
- A new lifestyle choice brought on by the increased popularity of contraception.
How did Park see parenting?
As conflicting with their career/ leisure interests - often rejected the notion of maternal instinct.
What are Wallander’s pull factors of being child free?
Increased freedom, better relationships with partners and more disposable income.
Effects of changing fertility
- Smaller family - women more likely to take paid work = dual earner family - 60% couples with children are dual earners.
- Fall in children 2013 47% nuclear families had 1 child - fall in dependency ratio. However long term fewer babies = fewer adults and so burden of dependency may increase again.
- Vanishing children - lonelier childhoods, fewer siblings.
- Lost voice of the child as there are more childless adults.
- Fewer children could mean they are more valued.
- Fewer public services - schools, children’s health, maternity/ paternity pay.
- Types of housing being built.
- Rise in average age of population.
How do feminists explain a genderquake?
- Compared with earlier generations of females they are less likely to want to get married or want children.
- Campbell - sees the importance of globalisation when studying the experience of women - argues patriarchal oppression is unlikely to be the same experience across different societies.
E.g. In Pakistan, Malala Yousafzai was shot by the Taliban in 2012 for campaigning in favour of girls education.
What does the postmodernist Beck argue countries like the UK and USA are influenced by?
- The cult of the individual in which people put their own needs before those that are expected of them by society.
- Argues that this philosophy may be responsible for the large increase in single-person households.
What does the new right sociologist Morgan argue that government social policy particularly in more industrialised societies has done little to do?
Protect marriage and nuclear family life encouraging girls to abandon aspirations to marry and to have children and to forego their natural roles as caregivers and nurtures.
How has globalisation affected divorce?
- Global divorce rate increased by more than 250% since 1960.
- United Nations estimate the Maldives having the highest divorce rate in the world - 11 divorces for every 1000 people - average Maldivian women by 30 has been divorced 3 times.
- Lowest divorce rates found in less industrialised societies where religions such as Islam and Hinduism still exert powerful influence and marriages are generally arranged by parents/ matchmakers.
- Only 15% of marriages break in Kenya, 17% in Egypt and 1% in India.
How has globalisation affected grandparents?
- Korean and Chinese culture is influenced by Confucian principle of ‘ filal piety’ which means you must respect your parents.
- Younger members of the family are brought up to have a duty of care for ageing members of families.
- Even outside the family unit young Chinese and Koreans are socialised to respect and show deference to elders as well as authority figures.
- E.g. It is customary in Korea to have a big celebration to mark a 60th and 70th birthday.
- Jessel et al - research into migrant families of Bangladeshi living in the UK and found examples of synergistic learning interactions between grandparents and grandchildren - grandmother would help grandchildren learn about Bengali language and heritage whilst grandchildren would help grandmothers learn to use computers.
How has globalisation affected single parent families?
- IUK - 1960 only 2% of all UK households were made of single-parent families but by 2012 it was estimated that there 2 million of such families with dependent children which made up about 1/4 of all families in the UK.
- Similar trends can be found elsewhere - US Census Board there were 12 million single parent families in the USA in 2017.
- According to United Nations data on families and households 2017 the lowest numbers of single-parent families headed by females are found in less industrialised societies located in Africa and Asia.
How has globalisation affected reconstructed families?
- USA :
- over 50% of families are remarried/ recoupled
- 80% of remarried people bring children into relationships.
- Reconstituted families are rare in less industrialised societies because of cultural disapproval of divorce - if they do exist its because a widow has come under family/ community pressure to remarry because such cultures believe men should be responsible for the welfare of women and children.
- 2013 - 7.7 million people of the UK population lived alone - nearly 4x higher than 40 years ago.
- Reflects a trend across Europe where the average proportion of single households is 14% of all households.
- China National Radio estimated that in 2013 there were 58 million single-person households in China accounting for 14% of all Chinese households.
How has globalisation affected organisational diversity?
- Rhona and Rapoport - observed whether family structure is underpinned by marriage or cohabitation - nuclear family structure is still the most common in more industrialised society’s.
- Also point out the vertical extended family (3 generations living under the same roof/ in close proximity) is the norm in most less industrialised societies especially those found in Africa and Asia.
- Evidence that extended kin physically come together for special occasions and that they feel a strong sense of duty or obligation to help and support each other in times of family crisis e.g. when children are born or when elderly relatives suffer debilitating illnesses such as dementia.
How has globalisation affected cultural diversity?
- Global migration has led to multiculturalism becoming a major feature of many more industrialised societies - this has had a significant effect on family structures and relationships e.g. migrants bringing their own cultural and religious beliefs and values about how they should organise family life to their host countries - can come times cause cultural conflict.
- Evidence to suggest an important aspect of assimilation is inter-marriage between indigenous ethnic groups and migrant groups.
- Many European societies have dual-heritage children - offspring of inter-ethnic marriages are the fastest growing group of children in those societies.
- Some sociologists suggest young people from mixed-race backgrounds face their own unique problems in the form of prejudice and discrimination from communities which parents originate.
How has globalisation affected child abuse?
- 3/4 of all global violence is domestic according to WHO.
- On average 200 children are made red a year by family members in the UK.
- WHO reports that nearly 6,000 children are murdered each year worldwide.
- Honour-related murders involve girls/ women being killed by male/ female family members for an actual/ assumed sexual or behavioural transgression including adultery, sexual intercourse or pregnant y outside marriage or even for being raped.
- Often perpetrators see femicide as a way to protect family reputation to follow tradition/ adhere to wrongly interpreted religious demands.
- WHO estimates 5,000 murders in the name of ‘honour’ each year worldwide.
- Killings occur mainly in the Middle East and South Asia but also among some migrant communities in countries including Australia, Europe and North America.
- 2013 UNICEF 2013 - FGM practices legally in 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East.
- Many western societies have taken legal steps to criminalise FGM to deter migrant communities from the practice.
How has globalisation affected childhood experiences
- Children in developing countries constantly at risk of early death because of poverty/ lack of basic health care.
- UNICEF notes that measles kill over 500,000 children a year in Africa and malaria kills over 1 million children a year most under 5.
- War also shapes childhood because it kills disproportionate numbers of children but they also increase the likelihood of children becoming orphans, refugees, hostages, slaves and soldiers.
- UNICEF 1995 reported that in the previous decade 2 million children had been killed in wars thus exceeded the number of soldiers killed in the same period.
- There are estimated 11 million street children in India and 400,000 street children in Bangladesh - nearly 10% have been forced into prostitution to survive.
In 2021 how many households were there compared to 2011?
- 24.8 million households in England and Wales which is up 6.1% from 23.4 million in 2011.
What was the average household size in England and Wales in 2021?
2.4 people per household the same as 2011.
How many households were single family, one person households, multiple family or other in 2021?
- Single family - 63%
- One person households - 30.2%
- Multiple family or other - 6.8%
What has happened to the % of usual residents aged 16 years and over who were married or in civil partnerships since 2011?
- Decreased from 46.8% to 44.6% in 2021.
What has happened to the % of people who were never married and never been in a civil partnership since 2011?
Increased from 34.6% to 37.9% in 2021.
