Debates Flashcards
Which studies are Nature (2)/ nurture (3)/ both (2)
Nature:
- Casey
- Baron-Cohen
Nurture:
- Bandura
- Chaney
- Lee
Both:
- Blakemore and Cooper
- Freud
Discuss the nature/nurture debate. Use examples from appropriate core studies to support your answer [15 marks]
- Definitions
The Nature argument suggests that behaviour is seen to be the product of innate factors. This does not simply refer to behaviours presented at birth but to any behaviours determined by genes, including those that appear throughout the life span through maturation
The Nurture (environmental) debate argues that behaviour is learned or acquired through experiences in our environment.
- Strength of Nature
One strength of the nature debate is it can also make predictions about future behaviours.
Casey showed that specific regions of the brain influence the ability to delay gratification, low activity in the inferior frontal gyrus is associated with low delayers. Low delayers may have worse life outcomes as they may do worse academically. By teaching them techniques to help them delay gratification this can improve their life chances.
- Weakness of Nature
It is deterministic to assume that behaviour is determined solely by our biology. This makes it harder to change behaviour or develop interventions as if behaviours are innate it may not be possible to change them.
Casey showed that low delayers have less activity in the inferior frontal gyrus, this seems to be constant as they showed poor impulse control at age 4. It maybe that this behaviour is innate therefore suggesting this behaviour is fixed and may not be able to be changed by environmental factors.
- Strength of Nurture
If behaviours are solely due to nurture they are useful as we can find the cause of behaviour and treat it with relevant application. This is further supported with scientific research.
Chaney demonstrated that behaviour can be modified in a short space of time with the use of operant conditioning. P’s were given an enticing Funhaler with spins and whistles to replace their old existing spacer and medical adherence rose from just 3/30 taking it regularly to 22/30. Therefore positive reinforcement could be used in other settings to improve behaviours.
- Weakness of Nurture
If we assume that all behaviours are due to solely nurture, this is reductionist. We may be ignoring the importance of biological factors in human behaviour. It may be better to take an interactionist approach.
Bandura found that boys were generally more aggressive than girls, this is not explained within his conclusions therefore it could be a result of biological influences e.g. testosterone levels are higher in boys and are associated with aggression.
Discuss the free will/determinism debate in psychology. Use examples from relevant core studies to support your answer. (15 marks)
- Definition
Determinism is the argument that we do not have control over our actions but are controlled by internal forces such as our biology or genes (biological determinism), or by external forces the way we are brought up (environmental determinism).
On the other hand, free will is the argument is that we have the freedom to act as we want at all times. We have the choice to behave as we wish and are responsible for our actions.
- Strength of determinism
A strength of deterministic research is that studies tend to be scientific as the research infers cause and effect between an IV and a DV which is a key feature of the scientific method. Determinism suggests that all behaviours have a cause.
Chaney demonstrated the effect of reinforcement on compliance using a spinner/whistle attached to the Funhaler. When using the standard breathe-a-tech device 3/30 parents said that they had successfully administered the asthma medicine the day before. this increased to 22/30 when using the Funhaler.
As compliance significantly increased whilst using the Funhaler we can see that behaviour can be determined by external forces. The rewarding toys caused the effect of greater use of the Funhaler showing a key feature of science. The IV (Funhaler) caused compliance (DV) to increase-cause and effect
- Weakness of determinism
A weakness of determinism is that it removes moral responsibility from the individual causing problems in the criminal system, as surely we wouldn’t punish behaviours that people have no control over
For example Milgram looked into obedience provided that 65% of people obeyed 100% of the requests given by the authoritative figure to give “painful” electric shocks Milgram suggests that they may have obeyed because their behaviour was caused by the authoritative figure therefore all responsibility is taken away from them.
This is a weakness as this perception may cause others to absolve responsibility for their actions in the past and therefore it is more likely they will commit immoral acts in the future. Criminals could also use this as a defence by stating they have no control of their actions and therefore should not be punished.
- Strength of free will
A strength of the free will debate is that it recognises freedom of choice. This therefore then gives people responsibility for their actions which is ultimately what the legal system is based on.
For example Bocchario et al. (2012) showed some individuals were able to exercise free will and whistle blow. 14.1% of participant chose to disobey the authority figure in the grey suit by not writing a convincing letter, more over 9.4% whistle blew by posting a response to the ethics committee to say that the study was unethical.
Therefore this shows us that we are not all dependent on the external forces that control us we are capable of free will. As such we can control and change our behaviours which relates to the justice system which suggests we should be punished but that we can also rehabilitate
- Weakness of Free Will
A problem with this debate is that it suggests no predictability or patterns to behaviour, this means interventions/treatments may be pointless
For example, in Piliavin’s study investigating helping behaviour the participants chose to help the individuals on their own behalf and, although factors such as the race and responsibility of the victim played a part, they had free will and could choose whether to help based on their own analysis of costs and rewards
However having free will makes it difficult to predict how people will behave and creating interventions may not be effective as individuals can choose not to engage or behave in the way that is predicted
Studies demonstrating determinism and free will (2 for free will and 2 for deterministic)
DETERMINISTIC
- Milgram - 65% of participants went to 450 volts(experimenter wearing a lab coat, glasses, clipboard, used verbal prods - official)
- Bocchario - 75% of participants who wrote the letter of recommendation for the sensory deprivation study. Qualitative data suggests that they obeyed because it was ‘expected of them’. They were in an agentic state (feel they have no option but to obey)
FREE WILL
- Milgram - 35% of participants did not go to 450 volts (individual differences in personality)
- Bocchiaro - 25% of participants had either disobeyed or whistle blew ‘I don’t want to do unethical things’ individual differences in levels of morality
To what extent is psychology a science. Use examples from relevant core studies to support your answer (15 marks)
- Yes it is - Standardisation
To some extent psychology can be considered a science as research is often highly standardised.
Many studies use standardised procedures or materials which ensure that all participants are treated in a consistent manner meaning that results can be compared accurately.
For example, Milgram, ran a highly standardised procedure where the actions of the experimenter were completely scripted such as the use of prods such as “you must continue”, “the experiment requires that you continue”. This means that participants had very consistent experiences
- Standardisation - Counterargument
However as not all studies are carried out in controlled conditions this means they lack standardisation. For example, Chaney was a field experiment where children were using inhalers in the home environment. The behaviour of their parents around inhaler use could be very different meaning there is a lack of consistency and this could become a confounding variable.
- Yes it is - Manipulation of IV’s - Lab Exp
Psychology can be used as a science to some extent as research is often conducted as lab experiments.
This means that they can easily manipulate variables to establish cause and effect.
For example Bandura used a lab experiment to study the transmission of aggression. He has clear IV’s (aggression Bandura manipulated two sets of Ns (1) whether the role model was aggressive or non- aggressive, (2) whether the role model was the same sex or opposite sex to the child; there was also (3) a Control condition where the children did not see a role model at all) This paired with the DV of aggressive actions, allowed Bandura to establish cause and effect.
- Manipulation of IV’s - Lab Exp - Counterargument
However not all of psychology is as scientific as this, as they don’t all use lab experiments. Some use controlled observations eg. Milgram. There was no IV everyone experienced the same conditions so it is difficult to be sure that the high levels of obedience shown are caused by the authority figure.
- No is isn’t - Subjective
Psychology may not be considered a science because not all the approaches are directly observable and can be subjective making us question how scientific the subject is.
For example the psychodynamic perspective when investigating subject matter use, in the majority, case studies. These are generalized and involved the biased interpretation of the researcher which can lead to subjective interpretation
This is evident in Freud’s research with Little Hans by his father. Many of the conversations and observations were open to interpretation by Freud to fit the phallic stage e.g the crumpled giraffe being his mother. Therefore not all of psychological can be consider scientific as it is not based on objective observable measurements
Less scientific (8) vs Scientific core studies (10) and both (2)
Less scientific core studies:
- Freud (case study)
- Grant (8 experimenters)
- Chaney (field experiment)
- Kohlberg (qualitative data)
- Piliavin (field experiment)
- Levine (field experiment)
- Hancock (qualitative data)
- Maguire – (quasi experiment)
Both:
- Sperry – quasi
- Casey – quasi
Scientific core studies:
- L&P – lab
- Bandura – lab
- Milgram – controlled obs
- Bocchiaro – controlled obs
- Moray - lab
- Simons and Chabris - lab
- Blakemore and Cooper - lab
- Lee – lab
- Gould - Yerkes – psychometric tests
- Baron-Cohen – standardised procedures
Linking Holism to Core Studies (3 studies) and Linking Reductionism to Core Studies (3 studies)
Holism:
- Bocchario – looked at many different variables such as 6 personality traits, faith, decomposed games measures to investigate whistleblowing
- Piliavin - examined lots of different variables to understand helping behaviours e.g. race, gender, victim, no of bystanders.
- Levine - examined lots of different variables to understand helping behaviours e.g. 26 different countries, pace of life, simpatia, economic well being, individualism/collectivism etc
Reductionism:
- Chaney – Only focused on reinforcement from the funhaler ignoring other factors such as parental attitudes which could affect compliance to taking asthma medication.
- Gould - Yerkes saw intelligence as racially/genetically determined – ignores environmental factors
- Loftus – Only focused on leading questions ignoring other factors such as stress which could affect eyewitness recall.
Discuss the reductionism/holism debate in psychology. Use examples from appropriate research to support your answer. [15 marks]
- Definition
Holism is trying to understand how many different variables/factors combine and interact to influence behaviour.
Reductionism is reducing a behaviour down to it’s simplest explanation and looking at only one factor being the cause of behaviour.
- Strength of Reductionism
The process of the study tends to be scientific as they tend to focus solely on a single cause for a behaviour which is also the idea behind manipulating an independent variable in an experiment while controlling other variables.
For example Loftus investigated how leading questions can affect memory, this involved only focusing on the aggressiveness of the verb in the leading questions e.g. smashed, hit, etc but ignoring other factors which is a reductionist approach.
This makes the study more scientific as by just focusing on a single IV it is much easier to infer cause and effect between the IV and the DV – the leading question and the speed estimated e.g smashed = 40.5 mph, Hit 31.8 mph.
- Weakness of reductionism
A weakness of the reductionism approach is that it oversimplifies human behaviours as it is complex and involves many interactions with various factors. Therefore behaviour cannot be defined by one factor.
In Bandura’s study investigating if learning that took place in one situation would be generalised to other situations, he focused on the influence of role models. Bandura found that children shown aggressive role models are more likely to be aggressive suggesting they imitate behaviour from the model.
Although he only focuses on one factor there may be other extraneous variables that caused this result. For example the children’s brain activity and upbringing may have caused them to be aggressive and not the role models influence, making us less sure on the cause and effect of the role models behaviour influencing the children’s behaviour.
- Strength of Holism
A strength of taking an holistic approach is that it is more likely to explain why things happen. This therefore then gives a more valid and complete picture of human experience.
In Piliavin’s study of helping behaviour, he takes into account a range of factors including race, type of victim, gender, models, no of bystanders etc.. This showed that passengers showed a wide range of different responses to the situation when the victim collapsed for example women were less likely to help especially in the drunk victim condition.
By weighing up the different cost and benefits of helping in different situations, we can understand helping behaviour in a more valid way which takes into account the many different factors involved rather than a reductionist approach of just focusing on one variable.
- Weakness of Holism
A weakness of taking a holistic approach to research is that it makes it more difficult to research as when investigating multiple variables, it’s harder to control extraneous variables and measure accurately.
For example, Levine looked at helping behaviours in a range of cultures comparing various factors such as population size, economic well-being, individualism versus collectivism value, walking speed. By taking into all these factors the economic well-being was found to have a negative correlation with helping behaviour.
However studying so many variables means that less scientific research methods such as correlation and quasi-experiment are used, which make it harder to infer cause and effect and we cannot be sure that variables such as economic welcome are causing a reduction in helping behaviour.
What is on each side of the debate?(6 things for individual, 4 things for situational)
Individual:
- Dispositional hypothesis
- Genetics
- Personality
- Cognitive processes
- Hormones
- Moral development
Situational:
- Situational hypothesis
- Crowds
- Peers
- Identification with roles
Discuss the individual/situational debate in psychology. Use examples of research from the developmental area to support your answer [15 marks]
- Definition
Individual: The idea that behaviour results from personality and factors internal to the individual.
Situational: The idea that behaviour is a response to the situation a person finds themselves in and is therefore a product of external factors
- Strength of individualism
A strength of the individual debate is that it states behaviours are strongly influenced by individual factors – allows predictions/ interventions to be made.
Casey shows that impulse control is due to activity in the Inferior Frontal Gyrus as seen in MRI scans of the brain, having less activity here resulted in poorer impulse control on the go-no go task (low delayers).
Knowing this means that we can predict that low delayers may have poor impulse control which may lead to negative behaviour e.g. poor work habits. They could be targeted with an intervention to train them how to control their impulses.
- Weakness of individualism
A weakness of the individual debate is that supporting research can be socially sensitive. Issues relating to labelling and stigmatization would occur if we solely accept individualism as the cause to all behaviour.
This means that people identified in the studies can be negatively labelled (stigmatized)
Baron Cohen highlighted that people with autism have trouble ‘reading minds’ (lack of theory of mind) this can lead to these individuals being viewed (possibly treated) differently. Also, he labelled the control group in his study as ‘normal’ suggesting that the other two groups weren’t.
- Strength of situationalism
A strength is that situational debate is deterministic and means that if a situation is having a negative impact on behaviour it’s much easier to change the environment than if it were an individual factor and change the person.
Bandura highlights the importance of SLT. Children readily imitate aggressive adults but change the environment and children will copy more positive non aggressive behaviour. Much easier to do than change testosterone levels in a child.
- Weakness of situational
A weakness is that situational debate is reductionist meaning it doesn’t acknowledge individual factors may also explain behaviour.
Milgram 35% didn’t obey and it can attributed to personality differences or differing levels of morality
Useful studies (3) vs non useful (2)?
Useful:
- Baron-Cohen – The eyes task can be used to help psychologists diagnose Autism in High functioning autistics which may help them to access treatment/interventions.
- Loftus and Palmer – the conclusion that leading questions distort memory can be used by the police and judiciary to ensure leading questions are NOT used when interviewing witnesses to a crime.
- Milgram – The study helps us to understand why people may act in aggressive ways when ordered to by authority figures which helps to understand the holocaust, genocide, war crimes.
Not useful:
- Milgram – As the study lacked ecological validity as shocking learners to the point that they no longer respond does not relate to everyday situations of obedience and may just reflect the artificiality of the setting and therefore lacks usefulness.
- Freud – As the study was open to researcher bias, Hans’ father may have interpreted little Hans behaviours in a way that supported Freud’s theories as he was a believer of the theories himself which reduces the usefulness of the research.
Discuss the usefulness of psychological research. Support your answer with examples from relevant core studies [15 marks]
- It is useful
Psychological research can be considered useful if it furthers our knowledge and understanding of why people behave the way they do
For example, Freud found that Little Hans’ fear of horses was really a subconscious fear of his father because he was experiencing the Oedipus complex. Such findings have considerable implications for psychologists / psychiatrists who are trying to find unconscious reasons for people’s behaviours. Freud’s work lead to the birth of psychoanalysis which still plays a significant role in the treatment of psychological issues today
- Freud Counterargument - Not useful
However, one must be careful not to exaggerate the usefulness of such research
Freud’s study only involved one young boy who may not have been typical or representative of the general population: not many young boys show such an extreme fear of horses; and as no girls were studied one cannot say how they might behave in similar situations.
- It is useful
Psychological research is useful when it has practical applications that improve people’s lives and / or the societies they live in.
For example, Bandura’s research found that young children will imitate adult’s behaviour. For example, children who observed an adult playing aggressively with a bobo doll displayed more aggression than those who observed a non-aggressive model. This understanding can be used to ensure that young children are not exposed to aggression on TV and in films aimed at children.
- Bandura Counterargument - not useful
However, research may have limited usefulness as it may lack ecological validity.
For example, Bandura’s study was a laboratory experiment, where p’s were placed a series of rooms with specific toys to observe adults and then play with the toys themselves. Such surroundings may have felt artificial to each participant who may not have acted naturally, making it harder to establish that they would imitate adults in the same way in the real world. Therefore, making the findings of the study less useful.
Studies which could create harm (2 studies) and cause political consequences (2)
Harmful:
- Milgram’s study as the participants showed clear signs of distress in the study such as seizures, trembling, digging their nails into their own flesh and the thought that they could of caused someone major harm could affect them psychologically too.
- Gould’s review of Yerkes showed that Jewish immigration was restricted. Many Jews couldn’t escape from Nazi Germany and may have lost their lives in concentration camps.
Political consequence:
- Bandura’s study showed that children imitate aggressive behaviours from models. This led to the ‘watershed’ where certain behaviours are banned before 9 pm on TV.
- Gould’s review showed that Yerkes’ flawed tests were used to promote Eugenics arguments against immigration from certain countries/races. This led to the 1924 immigration restriction act in the US which greatly reduced quotas from certain countries.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of conducting socially sensitive research in psychology. Use examples from appropriate core studies to support your answer. [15]
- 1st Strength
One strength of conducting socially sensitive research is that it raises awareness of why there are differences between groups.
This is a strength because it can help to positively challenge prejudice and discrimination towards groups in society.
For example, Baron-Cohen was able to identify that the reason that people with autism may struggle with communication and social interaction is because they lack a theory of mind and not because of intelligence levels.
This helps people understand the symptoms of autism and should reduced negative attitudes towards those with developmental disorders.
- 1st Weakness
However, socially sensitive research which raises perceived differences between people can lead to political consequences.
This is a problem as it could lead to legislation that has negative consequences for certain groups in society.
For example, Gould reviewed Yerkes research which aimed to devise a scientific way to test the natural trait of intelligence on a mass scale. This study involved three tests alpha, beta and individual testing suited to 1.75million male army recruits of different ages, background and US states. Yerkes concluded that intelligence is an innate quality with a hereditary bias and it is possible to grade an individual intelligence by the colour of their skin. These racist views were spread across society and lead to the forced sterilization of black people up to the 1970’s. This horrific act was caused by socially sensitive research which was twisted with racist views.
- 2nd Strength
Another strength of socially sensitive research is that it often provides insight into the experiences of minority groups.
This is a strength as it means interventions can be put into place to improve these experiences
For example, Baron-Cohen used an adult test to assess theory of mind competence in high-functioning adults with autism or Asperger. His results showed that high functioning autistics have a low theory of mind. This realisation allows intervention to be generated. For example, they may practise social interactions to improve their theory of mind. Families can even be informed to help their children understand other people’s emotions
- 2nd Weakness
However, socially sensitive research can lead to stigma against people who display characteristics that are identified as socially undesirable.
This is a problem as individuals who display such characteristics may be discriminated against when applying for jobs
For example, Hancock investigated the language characteristics of psychopaths and non-psychopaths when describing their violent crimes. Findings showed that psychopaths were less fluent in their use of language than non-psychopaths and that psychopaths use language that displays a lack of emotion. Awareness of these differences may cause employers to analyse the language of potential employees and not offer them employment if they shown these characteristics in their language.
Discuss ethical considerations in relation to the social area. Support your answer with examples from relevant core studies. [12 marks]
- First PEEC
P: As many studies in the social area aim to find out how people behave in extreme situations there is often a lot of deception.
E: This is where the psychologist gives the Ps false information. They tell them the study is about something that it is not.
E: For example, Milgram aimed to find out the extent to which individuals will obey immoral orders. To do this he deceived his participants in several ways. Firstly, his initial advert asked for volunteers to take part in a study of memory and learning, when in fact he was studying obedience. Secondly, participants were led to believe the shock generator actually gave electric shocks when in reality it did not.
C: However, on occasions, if deception is not used, participants may respond in a socially desirable manner so findings will lack validity. It is the responsibility of the researcher to protect participants from any psychological or physical harm yet this ethical consideration can be raised against many studies in the social area. Milgram, in his study of obedience, noted extreme signs of stress in many of his participants – sweating, trembling, laughing nervously. Although participants should not be put under stress it may be necessary to get valid and meaningful results. This when the benefits outweigh the costs.
- Second PEEC
P: Another strength Participants who lack informedconsent that are being studied ensures more natural behaviour
E: This means that they will not have been told what the experiment was about
E: Piliavin used a field experiment on New York subway trains to investigate factors affecting helping behaviour.Piliavinset up a standardised situation whereby someone needed help and confederates noted who helped and factors about the participants. He did not use informed consent as the participants did not know they were taking part in an experiment. These results therefore are free from demand characteristics and the behaviour shown is high in validity.
C: However a weakness of this means that this thenremoves their right to withdraw.In any research if there isn’t fully informed consent then P’s cannot make a fully informed decision to stay, this can also take away their right to withdraw. Piliavin’sP’s were stuck on a carriage for 7 ½ mins and could not escape. This preventedthem from leaving the experiment and having the choice as towhether or notto take part
