D4 Instruction Models Flashcards
3 Service Delivery Models
Itinerant… travel to client
Advantages – client familiar with area, natural environment, reduces need to transfer learning, routines-based, real life situations.
Disadvantages - bad weather, transporting materials, more pre-planning, constantly planning sessions in different settings for every client, less frequent sessions, travel time.
Centre based
well-established assessment and training areas that offer comprehensive training opportunities for evaluation and teaching. Inter disciplinary input.
Advantage – easier scheduling, ready access to training areas, more instructional time, less travel/pre-planning, can see clients more frequently, group sessions easier to arrange, opportunity to be with others with similar needs (social). Natural interaction with other students which can address a number of psychosocial issues.
Disadvantages – not in client’s home area, time away from family, clients have to be able to transfer skills to home area after program. Segregation of community and transfer of skills. Costs?
Residential
Clients stay at residential facility for their learning, e.g. like GDN Guide Dog domiciliary program.
Adv: clients available for sessions at any time as they are on site, easier scheduling, ready access to training areas, more frequent lessons, being able to address issues immediately, having support from staff to reinforce skills, opportunity for group activities and to be around others with similar needs.
Disadv: not in home area, time away from family, need to be able to transfer skills to home environment. Costs?
3 Team Models
Multi disciplinary
disciplines work independently to conduct assessments of a client, write and implement separate program plans, and evaluate client progress within the parameters of their own discipline
Inter disciplinary
different disciplines undertake independent assessments of a client, but carry out program development as a collective effort.
Trans disciplinary
different disciplines cooperate and collaborate during the initial assessment and planning phases of designing a client educational program and offer ongoing support and input
K-3 Grade Goals
Basic skills: human guide, protective techniques, tracking, aligning, squaring off indoors
Long cane: diagonal, 2 point touch, constant contact, touch and drag, negotiating doors and stairs, folding/unfolding cane, identify parts of cane
Road crossings: crossing with guide, identify timing of crossing (residential area), identify basic residential intersection shapes and traffic controls, cross residential streets (supervised)
Basic orientation to shops
Landmarks, cues, clues, identify house and local block landmarks
Route travel: maintain orientation (‘O’) in simple route shapes (I and L shape routes) in local area, follow and give simple route directions, maintain ‘O’ for simple route reversals
‘O’ strategies: use sun to aid direction to travel, describe spatial layout of familiar area, use problem-solving when disoriented in familiar area
‘O’ aids: use simple tactile, visual, auditory maps
Environmental: identify/describe common textures and terrain features, identify/describe basic outdoor features and residential block concepts
Spatial: self-to-object and object-to-object relations, identify left/right, turns, basic positional concepts, clockface directions, basic compass
Numbering systems: count to 100+, identify odd/even numbers
Traffic concepts: describe basic pedestrian safety rules, identify basic traffic controls, intersection shapes, parts/function of cars/vehicles
Visual skills: process/analyse sensory info, trace a stationary line, use scanning patterns to locate people/objects while stationary
Auditory skills: localize/identify/describe sound source, use reflected sounds for travel, create sound source for echolocation
Reflective sounds for travel
Create sound source for echolocation –
Optical and non optical device use –
Optical and non-optical devices: wear protective eyewear, label parts of monocular/optical device. Wear protective eyewear, label parts of device).
Understanding pathology: offer simple explanation of how eyes do/don’t work, name eye pathology.
4-6 Grade Goals
Cane skills (3 point touch technique various hand techniques in familiar outdoor, bring cane to/from school, negotiate escalators/elevators)
Street crossings (semi independent residential, intersection analysis basics
Mall/stores etc, (travel supervised to laocal stores, make simple purchases)
Transportation (locate bus stop, ride bus with others)
Landmarking (ID residential in blocks and routes, anticipate sequential landmarks during routes in familiar residential)
Route travel (use street names/directions/shapes/landmarks to maintain orientation,
Maintain orientation during complex roues,
Maintain orientation for more complex routes
Plan routes to familiar residential destinations
Orientation strategies (use sun and time of day to identify cardinal directions
Use orientation strategies for room orientation
Use spatial and estimation in route travel
Use effective recovery strategies after veering
Problem solve using task analysis and hypothesis testing
Orientation aids (use compass to establish direction
Use and construct map for semi familiar areas
Environmental (identify/describe events in a typical residential features
Identify /describe complex indoor features
Spatial (reverse turns on return routes,
Identify parallel and perpendicular
Apply compass points in route travel
Make 90 180 360 degree turns
Identify clockwise and counter clockwise directions
Numbering systems (identify characteristics of indoor numbering systems)
Identify outdoor systems
Use indoor systems to determine side of hallway of destination
Use outdoor systems to determine proximity of destination
Traffic concepts (describe relevant markings and elements
Identify parallel and perpendicular traffic flows
Identify near /far lanes of traffic
Identify basic traffic patterns
Describe ped/traffic timing at basic controls
Describe basic driver rules
Estimate volume/speed acceleration of traffic
Visual skills (scar environment while moving track familiar moving objects
Auditory skills align/squatre off to sound sources
Use reflected sounds to find interior/exterior corners and recesses, track a moving sound source
Optical and non-optical (use devices independently for O&M activities)
Understanding pathology (ID describe eye pathology in simple terms identify visual functioning
Basic skills: correct human guide technique, why & where to use protective techniques, demonstrate alignment and squaring off
Long cane: 3-point touch plus cane techniques as above, bring cane to/from school, escalator cane use, semi-independent road crossings, basic intersection analysis
Malls, stores, travel with supervision, make simple purchases
Transport: locate bus stop/train station, travel on bus
Landmarks: ID landmarks in local area, anticipate landmarks in route travel in familiar area
Route travel: use street names, directions, route shapes and landmarks to maintain ‘O’, more complex routes, shapes & route reversals, complex indoor features
‘O’ strategies: use sun and time of day to ID cardinal direction, self-‘O’ within rooms, use of spatial updating and time-distance estimation (familiar routes), recovery strategies after veering into driveways/streets, problem solving using task analysis
‘O’ aids: use compass to establish direction, use visual and auditory maps
Environmental: ID/describe advanced atypical residential blocks and grid features, ID/describe complex indoor features
Spatial: reverse right/left turns on return routes, identify parallel/perpendicular, compass points in route travel, make 90⁰, 180⁰, 360⁰ turns, identify clockwise/anti-clockwise
Numbering systems: ID characteristics of indoor & outdoor numbering systems, use systems to determine proximity to destination
Traffic concepts: describe relevant road markings & elements, ID parallel/perpendicular traffic flows, ID near/far lanes of traffic, describe basic traffic patterns, describe pedestrian/traffic flow at basic traffic light controls, describe basic driver rules, estimate volume/speed/acceleration of traffic
Visual skills: systematically scan while moving, track familiar moving objects
Auditory skills: align/square off to sound source, use reflected sound to ID interior/exterior corners and recess/indentation, track moving sound source
Optical/non-optical devices: use independently for O&M
Understanding pathology: name/describe eye pathology in simple terms, ID/describe visual functioning
7-9 Grade Goals
- Basic skills: teach human guide skills to others, anticipate need for & use protective technique and trailing in unfamiliar areas, demonstrate alignment/squaring off in business areas
- Long cane: anticipate need for and use various cane techniques
- Road crossings: residential road crossings (independent), light business crossings (supervised), analyse residential and simple light business intersections, complete railway crossings
- Mall, stores: supervised travel in malls/department stores, independent travel in small stores, make complex purchases
- Transport: use public transport (supervised), obtain transport schedule from variety of sources, e.g. app, website, map
- Landmarking: use effective questioning strategies to get landmark/destination info from others
- Route travel: plan alternative routes/detours within familiar light business area
- ‘O’ strategies: apply use of sun, compass & landmarks to orient self when dropped off in familiar area, use effective questioning to get route info, locate destination using indoor/outdoor numbering systems
- ‘O’ aids: use detailed tactile, visual or audio to orient self to shopping malls and outdoor areas, use available map/internet tools and store directories
- Environmental: ID/describe business features, grocery store, department/convenience store features, features of rural areas without sidewalk/footpath
- Spatial: ID midcompass points (e.g. N-W, S-E) and use mid-compass points to identify corners of intersection
- Numbering systems: determine relative location of destination based on numbering system & street name, determine direction of travel based on numbering system, plan simple route using indoor/outdoor numbering system
- Traffic concepts: describe complex road elements, complex traffic controls, compare traffic control patterns, describe traffic flow at one-way and atypical intersection
- Visual skills: interpret visual cues to anticipate mobility challenges, track unfamiliar moving objects
- Auditory: use reflected sounds to describe characteristics of objects, explain Doppler effect (the increase in frequency of a sound as the sound source gets closer to observer, e.g. siren getting louder as it gets closer).
- Optical/nop-optical devices: use in daily routines
- Pathology: describe eye pathology/condition & visual functioning in detail, use model of eye to describe
Anticipate need and use protective and trailing in unfamiliar areas
Demonstrate alignment/squaring off in light business areas
Long cane (anticipate / use techniques in unfamiliar outdoor areas)
Street crossings (complete independent residential street crossing, complete supervised light business crossings, analyze residential/light business intersections, complete railroad crossings)
Mall stores (travel with supervision in malls/department stores
Travel independently in small stores, make complex purchases
Transportation use public bus with supervision
Obtain public transportation schedules from a a variety of sources
Landmarking use effective question strategies to elicit information about landmarks
Route travel lplan alternative routes/detour within familiar light business environments
Orientation strategies (apply use of sun, compass/landmarks to orient self when dropped off in familiar residential areas
Use effective questioning via person/telephone to elicit information from others,
Locate information via indoor numbering or outdoor address system
Orientation aids (use detailed info to orient self to malls or outdoor areas,
Use available/accessible business directories
Use commercially available/internet map sites
Environmental (identify describe light business features
Spatial/directional/positional (identify mid compass points apply mid compass points
Numbering systems determine relative location based on numbering systems and street names
Determine direction of travel based on numbering systems
Plan simple route using numbering system.
Traffic concepts (describe complex road elements
Describe complex traffic controls
Compare times vs actuated controls
Describe traffic flow at one-way and atypical intersections
Visual skills (systematically track moving objects in the environment
Interpret visual skills to use orientation strategies track unfamiliar moving objects
Auditory skills (use reflected sound to describe characteristics of objects explain the Doppler effect
Optical devices (use devices in daily routines)
Understanding pathology (describe eye pathology and visual functioning in detail)
Model of eye to describe anatomy/pathology
10-12 Grade Goals
Drop offs.
Know EMA.
Plan Route.
Public Transport.
Eye Conditions
Teaching People Human Guide.
Create pamplets about do and don’ts of human guide technique
Long cane – order appropriate cane to demonstrate awareness of availability/size, type and tips.
Street crossing – complete independent in light business in metro/urban area
Malls/stores – travel and shop independently
Transport – research options, apply for paratransit service, complete transit transfers independently.
Landmarking – complete multimedia presentation of familiar landmarks that can be used.
Orientation strategies – how when dropped off.
Orientation aids – use GPS to establish orientation, plan routes,
Environmental – ID and describe atypical travel features in light business and urban environments
Numbering system, plan complex routes indoor and outdoor
Traffic concepts – ID complex intersection configurations, describe freeway, interstate systems, rail systems, role of traffic engineer, approaches to consumer advocacy in intersection accessibility
Visual skills – independently use visual cues and integrate selective use of visual skills for each unique travel environment in all daily routines.
Optical devices – describe and use, select and order and keep up with options.
Auditory – use in daily routines
Eye pathology – understand eye conditions, research pathology and understand info.
Basic skills: create document to describe, for example, do’s and don’ts of human guide
Long cane: order own cane, demonstrate awareness of use of various ETAs (electronic travel aids)
Road crossings: complete independently, analyse intersection, complex intersection (supervised), complex crossing in urban areas
Mall, stores: travel independently
Transport: research transport options, apply for travel services/cards, complete transport transfer independently
Landmarking: create multimedia presentation of familiar city or key landmarks that can be used for ‘O’
Route travel: plan routes using public transport to unfamiliar destination
‘O’ strategies: orient self when dropped off in familiar business area
‘O’ aids: use GPS technology to establish ‘O’, plan routes & find outdoor destination
Environmental: ID/describe atypical features in business areas, atypical travel features, features of urban travel area
Numbering systems: independently plan complex routes using indoor/outdoor numbering system, use maps
Traffic concepts: ID complex intersection, describe freeway system, describe rail system, describe consumer advocacy approaches
Visual skills: independent use of visual cues
Auditory skills: integrate auditory skills where required
Optical/non-optical: describe needs to optometrist
Understanding pathology: search eye pathology and synthesize info
Goals and Objective Benchmark
Goals …SMART behavioural goals (person, conditions, criteria, time)
Benchmark… Measurable Steps
This one needs more refinement but not now.
Goals should be directly related to assessed student needs & family priorities and be clearly described
Benchmarks are measurable steps required to reach goal
Benchmarks are described in behavioural terms, e.g. by who, what is expected, conditions, criteria for measuring, how it will be measured, by when/who (e.g. SMART goals)
Clear, precise, specific
Clearly defined behavioural measures – who, what is measured, how, criteria/conditions, by who, when.
resources available to the O&M specialists in the selection of instructional environments.
Other O&Ms in area
Online maps
Looking at area in advance (program planning)
Business owners
City planners/councils
Parks & rec departments (US)
Govt officials/police (e.g. safety concerns)
How do instructional goals and objectives/benchmarks relate to one another?
Instructional goals and objectives are written and based on the student’s needs and present level of performance and current assessment data. They are written for the student to be able to reasonably accomplish over 1 year. They are measurable.
They are broken down into short term objects to be monitored/measure as progress toward the goal.
They include who is being evaluated, activity/skill to be performed and to what degree of accuracy, context in which the skill/activity will be performed, by what date, measured by what criteria.
Identify two criteria for determining if an objective/benchmark is appropriately written.
Who
What is expected (behaviour or skill)
Conditions
Criteria for measuring goal attainment
How it will be measured
By when
Who is responsible.
SMART – specific, measurable, achievable, responsible, time period.
Instruction & Inquiry
Guided - structured teaching, new learning
Discovery - incidental situations, consolidate learning.
Guided learning – an instructor gives a specific sequential set of skills that are repeated until learned then expands upon foundation concepts.
Guided learning:
- instructor gives specific, sequential set of skills that are repeated until learned, then expands on foundation skills/concepts
- important for new learners as they lack the in-depth knowledge/motivation to benefit from less structured approaches
- should actively engage the learner, ensure they are motivated to attend session, find out how well they understand info
- useful when student needs to be shown the same behaviour repeatedly, or when the response to be learned is fairly simple, and environment is predictable e.g. holding cane correctly, shorelining, recovering from street crossing to relocate street corner
Discovery learning – uses incidental situations to incorporate needed skills in specific environments. The application of these approaches to instruction in that previously learned skills can be used when exploring new environments to optimize student learning.
Discovery learning:
Uses incidental situations to incorporate needed skills in a specific environment
Focus of instruction shifts from direct instruction from O&M to problem-solving/active learning/investigation by client
Self-directed discovery
V. useful once basic O&M skills have been consolidated
Enables client to connect new learning to their broader skillset in real-world context
Previously learned skills are used when exploring new environments to optimise learning
E.g. presenting a shape to a young client and asking them to report on its features; student is lost and asked to work his/her way out of problem independently (with hints if needed)
In higher education, we tend to first provide undergraduate students with instruction, like lectures and readings, before giving them a problem to solve. In the real world, however, business leaders identify a problem first and then seek a solution through a process of discovery.
Learning Theories
Behavioural = Learning is observable changes. Change comes through external stimuli. +/- reinforcer (strengthens) or +/- punisher (weakens) response. E.g. Celebrate achievement.
Cognitive = Learning is mental process. Builds upon existing schema. Talk about what already known for roads.
Social Cognitive = combination of behavioural/cognitive. Learners are active participants in process, generalise ideas to new context. Drop-off lesson.
Attempts to explain learning in terms of observable changes in the behavior of individuals: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. For example Gradually introducing a client into a more challenging environment once they’re comfortable with the previous one.
Behavioural learning theory:
- explains learning in terms of observable changes in behaviour of a person
- how behaviour is changed by external events/stimuli
- e.g. children repeat behaviours that are rewarded
- can be further divided into Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.
cognitive learning theories
Attempts to explain learning in terms of mental process that a person uses to more fully understand some concept or strategy. For example Individualizing instruction to meet the specific needs of a client, making connections to existing schemas.
social cognitive learning theories
A melding of behavioural and cognitive theories in which the learners are active participants in the learning processes and conscious processors of info about themselves and their context. For example By generalizing specific skills to another learning environment.
Positive Reinforcer
Providing a positive stimulus to strengthen a behaviour
Example A hall pass is given to reward a student for safe indoor travel
Negative reinforce
Removing aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior (behavior learning theory)
Example: Too narrow an arc width causes stepping off a kerb on his side, but a wider arc width corrects this situation.
Positive punisher
Adding aversive stimulus to weaken a behavior
Example An O&M instructor chastises a student for not using a cane at school in order to encourage him or her to use one in the future.
Negative Punisher
Removing a valued stimulus to weaken a behavour (behavior learning theory)
Example: A student is removed from a favorite restaurant when he or she exhibits acting out behavior.
Primary reinforcer
Reinforcer that satisfy built-in biological needs, such as food
Secondary reinforce
Reinforce stimulus that does initiate a pleasure response
How would an O&M specialist utilize behavioural learning theories?
Using behavior to instruct using a variety of behavior reinforcements and condition to teach i.e. when teaching O&M skills reward behavior to teach repetitive behavior
How would an O&M specialist utilize cognitive learning theories?
Instruction is taught more on a cognitive method, asking students to recall past info in order to connect to new skills i.e. connecting walking straight down a hall to walking on a sidewalk.
How would an O&M specialist utilize social cognitive learning theories?
Among the principles connected are learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to a particular behavioural change behaviour is directed toward specific goals for all but the most seriously compromised learners, learning gradually becomes self- regulated.
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning: involves reflexive actions, e.g. salivating when smelling/tasting food (unconditioned, innate response, not a learned response). Other unconditioned stimuli/responses include a puff of air to the eye causing blink reflex; removing hand from a hot pan.
- Conditioned/learned response: A reflexive response to something that naturally would not produce that response, e.g. biologically, people do not start salivating when they hear the
sound of a bell, but if they hear a bell when dinner is ready, the association of that dinner bell with what comes immediately after may cause them to salivate prior to actually smelling or seeing any food.
- Conditioning can be used to change behaviour by pairing a neutral stimulus that typically would not elicit an unconditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits that response. With repeated pairing, the neutral stimulus alone will come to produce the desired response. E.g. Pavlov’s dogs.
- Fears/phobias often result from classical conditioning; may need to be desensitized or deconditioned, e.g. gradually introducing student to the thing that is causing fear/anxiety. O&M example: fear of busy intersection – practise skills in quieter area first, then gradually transfer skills to busier area and finally busiest intersection (also guided first before doing independently)
A learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (eg food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (eg bell) it also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (eg salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus.
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Fixed interval schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Fixed ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Operant condition
The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.
B. Operant conditioning: the learning of voluntary behaviour through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses
- if an act is followed by a satisfying change in the environment, the likelihood of that act being repeated in similar situations is reinforced or increased (law of effect).
- if a behaviour is followed by an unsatisfying change in the environment, the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated is decreased.
- reinforcer: any consequence/stimuli that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behaviour
- punisher: using consequence/stimuli to reduce/decrease frequency of a specific behaviour
- Choosing the right reinforcer or punisher important for O&M
- Positive reinforcement: providing a positive/valued stimulus to strengthen a behaviour, e.g. praising a child for using correct cane grip
- Negative reinforcement: removing aversive stimuli to strengthen a behaviour, e.g. allowing a client to bump into an obstacle because not arcing cane in order to encourage cane arc
- Primary reinforcer: innate pleasurable stimuli e.g. food, water, smiles, hugs; satisfies built-in biological needs; naturally pleasurable and motivating.
- Secondary reinforcer: e.g. fun/interesting activities, praise/feedback, certificates, toys. Important to find out what will motivate child; important to use socially acceptable secondary reinforcers in O&M.
- reinforcers used more when children are young, have additional disability, or when developing rapport
- goal of O&M instruction is to phase out reinforcers so client not reliant on them and instead relies on own self-motivation an self-efficacy
- Positive punisher: adding adversive stimuli to weaken a behaviour, e.g. voicing displeasure to student for not using a cane at school in order to encourage future use
- Negative punisher: removing a valued stimulus to weaken a behaviour, e.g. student is removed from a fav restaurant when behaving poorly
- Positive reinforcers/punishers – stimulus has been applied
- Negative reinforcers/punisher – stimulus has been removed
- Shaping behaviours: the moulding of a behaviour so that it gradually comes to approximate the desired end state
– Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
– Fixed interval schedule: reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed
– Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Cognitive learning theory:
- attempts to explain learning in terms of mental processes that a person uses to understand concept/strategy
- concerned with memory, attention, problem-solving, conceptual learning
- learning in which meaningful associations are made between a class of elements that may be grouped together based upon some shared characteristics
Social Cognitive learning theory (Bandura):
melding of biological and cognitive theories
learners are active participants in learning process
learners consciously process info about themselves and their context
explains the way behaviour, cognition and the environment interact to shape people
learning is an internal process that may/may not lead to a particular behaviour change
behaviour is directed towards specific goals
learning gradually becomes self-directed and self-regulated for most learners
self-regulated learning consists of goal-setting, self-motivation, self-monitoring, self-instruction and self-evaluation
self-efficacy: one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. Can play a major role in how someone approaches goals, tasks, challenges. Efficacy can be increased by previous success, praise/feedback from others.
according to Bandura, people with high self-efficacy (those who believe they can perform well) are more likely to view difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather than avoided.
When people see others like them succeed, they also believe they are capable of succeeding.
A person’s beliefs in their own self-efficacy influences whether or not they will reproduce an observed behaviour
this theory details observational learning and modelling, which Bandura claimed helps people learn faster.
How would an O&M specialist utilize the following learning theories in O&M instruction?
1. Using behavioral learning theory in O&M: - using variety of behaviour reinforcements to teach, e.g. rewarding good behaviour - using +ve or –ve reinforcement to change a behaviour during sessions - can be used so learner gradually becomes more self-directed - gradually introducing client to more challenging environments once comfortable with previous one 2. Using cognitive learning theory in O&M: - asking client to recall past info in order to connect to new skills - individualizing instruction to meet specific needs - making connection to existing skills/concepts/schemas - to teach a new concept by defining concept first then applying it to the lesson - helping students make sense of info is the central issue - designing instruction so that meaningful connections are made - give the rules that define the concept, then provide examples of the concept, and then restate the rule. - e.g. explaining concept of 90⁰ (corners, turns, perpendicular) - discuss 360⁰ in circle - quarter equals 90⁰ - discuss shape of angle - find examples of angle in environment - make shape of angle with body - ask client to find examples of angle - restate 90⁰ concept/rule 3. Using social cognitive learning theory in O&M: - challenging student to understand strengths and set goals - generalising specific skills to another learning environment - ending session with positive feedback to increase self-efficacy - group O&M programs where clients learn from peers (modelling, observation) increases self-efficacy
