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Psychology > D Mock - Research Methods > Flashcards

D Mock - Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Define the term ‘ethics’

A

The term ‘ethics’ refers to the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or how they conduct an activity.

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2
Q

When do ethical issues arise?

A

Ethical issues arise when there is a conflict between the rights and dignity of participants and the goals and outcomes of research.

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3
Q

What is the mnemonic for the 6 main ethical issues?

A

Can Do Can’t Do With Participants

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4
Q

What are the 6 main ethical issues?

A

Can - Confidentiality
Do - Deception
Can’t- Consent
Do - Debrief
With - Withdrawal (right to withdraw)
Participants- Protection from Harm

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5
Q

What were the ethical issues raised in Asch’s study? Give the three. Brainstorm

A

Deception - confederates deliberately misleading one participant.
Consent - Didn’t have the full information.
Confidentiality - Filmed study, shared online.

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6
Q

How can you deal with informed consent?

A

1) Get consent
2) Presumptive consent
3) Prior General consent

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7
Q

How do you deal with deception?

A

1) The need for deception should be approved by an ethics committee, weighing up the benefits of the study against the costs to participants.
2) Participants should be fully debriefed after the study and offered the opportunity to withhold their data.

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8
Q

How do you deal with the right to withdraw?

A

Participants should be informed at the start of the study that they can withdraw, and after the investigation they should be to,d that they can withdraw their data.

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9
Q

How do you deal with protection from harm?

A
  • Avoid any risks greater than everyday life.
  • Stop the study.
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10
Q

How do you deal with confidentiality?

A

Give fake names/ numbers/ initials -> non-identifiable

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11
Q

Before a researcher does a study, they have to identify their ______ __________ (who they want to study).
However, it can be hard to study everyone in the target population, so they may select a ______ (a smaller number of participants from the target population).

A

target population
sample

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12
Q

What does a sampling technique do?

A

It’s a method that aims to produce a representative sample.

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13
Q

What are the 5 sampling techniques?

A

Random
Systematic
Stratified
Opportunity
Volunteer

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14
Q

What is the random sampling technique?

A

All members have an equal chance of selection.

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15
Q

What is the systematic sampling technique?

A

When every nth member of the target population is selected.

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16
Q

What is the stratified sampling technique?

A

The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population.

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17
Q

What is the opportunity sampling technique?

A

Where participants who are most convenient or available are recruited for the study.

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18
Q

What is the volunteer sampling technique?

A

This involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample.

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19
Q

What is a STRENGTH and WEAKNESS of random sampling?

A

STRENGTH) No bias -> equal chance
WEAKNESS ) Sample may not be varied by coincidence

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20
Q

What is a STRENGTH and WEAKNESS of systematic sampling?

A

STRENGTH) Avoids researcher bias, usually fairly representative.
WEAKNESS) Less effective than random, as it can’t be claimed that every population member has an equal chance.

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21
Q

What is a STRENGTH and WEAKNESS of stratified sampling?

A

STRENGTH) Representative of population
WEAKNESS) Time- consuming to identify subgroups, then randomly select participants, and contact them.

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22
Q

What is a STRENGTH and WEAKNESS of opportunity sampling?

A

STRENGTH) Quick, convenient, cheaper
WEAKNESS) Difficult to generalise beyond the sample, open to researcher bias

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23
Q

What is a STRENGTH and WEAKNESS of volunteer sampling?

A

STRENGTH) Less time-consuming, requiring minimal input from the researcher.
WEAKNESS) The reward/ type of advertisement may affect variety.

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24
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Clues/ cues that may help participants to question the aims of the study or the experimenter’s intentions.

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25
Q

What might demand characteristics mean?

A

The participants may try to please the experimenter (the ‘please-U’ effect)
The participants may deliberately under-perform to sabotage the results of the study (the ‘screw-U effect’)

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26
Q

What is the IV?

A

Independent variable - what we change or control in an experiment

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27
Q

What is the DV?

A

Dependent variable - The result/ outcome of the study. What we measure.

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28
Q

What is the EV? Give an example.

A

Extraneous variables - anything other than the IV that will influence our results (the DV).
For example, demand characteristics.

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29
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A

A research method in which the researcher studies behaviour in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation.

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30
Q

What is controlled observation?

A

Watching or recording behaviour in a controlled, structured environment, where some variables are managed,

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31
Q

Zimbardo’s experiment is an example of what type of observation?

A

Controlled observation

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32
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Involves the observer counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs.

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33
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Involves the observer recording established behavioural categories in a pre-established time frame.

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34
Q

What is overt observation?

A

The participant knows they are being observed.

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35
Q

What is a PRO and a CON of overt observation?

A

PRO) No ethical issues
CON) Behaviour may not be natural/ normal

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36
Q

What is covert observation?

A

The participants are unaware they are being observed.

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37
Q

What is a PRO and a CON of covert observation?

A

PRO) High ecological validity
CON) Ethical issues

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38
Q

What is participant observation?

A

The observer becomes actively involved in the activities of the people being studied.

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39
Q

What is a PRO and a CON of participant observation?

A

PRO) Easier to understand the observer’s behaviour. High ecological validity.
CON) Difficult to record observations (reliability issues). Observer can become involved, do data may be subjective.

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40
Q

What is non-participant observation

A

Researcher observing from a distance.

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41
Q

Give a PRO and a CON of non-participant observation.

A

PRO) Observations are made as they happen, so more reliable. Lack of contact, so observer maintains objectivity,
CON) Behaviour may be recorded but the meaning behind it is unknown.

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42
Q

Why might it be useful to have several observers?

A

Strengthens results in validity (accuracy) and reliability (consistency)

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43
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A type of self-report method, in which people are surveyed about a topic to find out more.

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44
Q

What are questionnaires made up of?

A

Open and closed questions.

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45
Q

What is an open question?

A

Allows the respondent to say as much as they like.
They aren’t restricted in the answers they give.

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46
Q

What is a closed question?

A

A fixed choice of responses determined by the researcher.
Participants are restricted in the answers they give.

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47
Q

What is quantitative data? What type of question usually generates this?

A

Numerical data.
Closed questions usually generate this data as you can count up the number of responses.

48
Q

What is qualitative data? What type of data usually generates this?

A

Non-numerical data.
Open questions usually generate this as there are lots of words/ pictures to analyse.

49
Q

Give a STRENGTH of Qualitative/ open questions:

A

More detailed answers mean more detailed conclusions can be made.

50
Q

Give a WEAKNESS of Qualitative/ open questions:

A

Time-consuming, and may receive answers from confused participants.

51
Q

Give a STRENGTH of Quantitative/ closed questions:

A

Easier and faster to collect data

52
Q

Give a WEAKNESS of Quantitative/ closed questions:

A

Lacks any background information

53
Q

Give a STRENGTH of Questionnaires:

A

Little effort and training required, so easier to collect data.
Quickly gather information, so cheaper.
Gather information from large numbers of people more efficiently, so better population validity.

54
Q

Give a WEAKNESS of Questionnaires:

A

Participants may give socially desirable answers to make themselves appear better, so data may be invalid.
Participants may misinterpret data or not understand it. They may even lie deliberately (demand characteristics), so data could be inaccurate.
Questionnaires may influence you to answer in a certain way, depending on the wording.

55
Q

What is an interview?

A

Another self-report method, involving asking a person questions directly, usually face-to-face.

56
Q

What are the two main types of interviews?

A

Structured and Unstructured

57
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Pre-determined questions, where the interviewer sticks firmly to their scripts.

58
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

The interviewer starts with a few planned questions, but then creates new questions in response to the answers given by the participant.

59
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

In between both structured and unstructured interviews.

60
Q

Give a STRENGTH for Structured interviews.

A

Procedure can be easily replicated/ repeated as questions are fixed.
This means data reliability can be checked.

61
Q

Give a WEAKNESS for Structured interviews?

A

The interviewer cannot deviate from their script, so information may be missed.
The interviewer’s expectations or personal characteristics may influence the answers the interviewee gives.
Participants may show a social desirability effect.

62
Q

Give a STRENGTH for Unstructured interviews.

A

Procedure allowed for greater flexibility.
Interviewer can tailor questions to the interviewee’s responses, so data can be explored in greater depth.

63
Q

Give a WEAKNESS for Unstructured interviews.

A

Interviews aren’t the same for each participant, so data reliability can’t be checked.
The interviewer’s expectations/ personal characteristics may influence the answers the interviewee gives.
Participants may show a social desirability effect.

64
Q

What is a correlation?

A

A non-experiment method that looks for the strength and direction of relationships between two co-variables, hence correlation.

65
Q

What are Co-variables?

A

The things that can be measured.
It refers to a statistical analysis of scores that are paired (ie. the Co-variables)

66
Q

Do correlations identify cause and effect?

A

Nope

67
Q

What is a positive correlation?

A

As one variable increases, so does the other. Both Co-variables increase.

68
Q

What is a negative correlation?

A

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

69
Q

What is a zero/ no correlation?

A

No relationship between the two variables.
Scatters will be all over the graph.

70
Q

What is an aim?

A

A statement of what the researcher intends to study/ the reason for carrying out the experiment.
It is written to test out a theory or hypothesis.

71
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A sentence-long prediction of precisely what the researcher is expecting to find out in the study. It must include the IV, DV, and be written in future tense because it’s written before the study is conducted.

72
Q

What are the two types of hypothesis?

A

Null and alternative

73
Q

What does a null hypothesis state?

A

The IV will not effect the DV.

74
Q

What does an alternative hypothesis state?

A

The IV will effect the DV.

75
Q

What are the two subtypes of alternative hypothesis?

A

Directional -> specific. States exactly how the IV affects the DV.
Non-directional -> vague. States a difference or affect will be found, but not exactly what this will be.

76
Q

What does writing a directional or non-directional alternative hypothesis depend on?

A

Prior knowledge/ research

77
Q

In what manner should you write a hypothesis?

A

Formally

78
Q

How do you start a null hypothesis?

A

‘There will be no difference in…’

79
Q

How do you start a directional hypothesis?

A

‘Participants who/ will…’

80
Q

How do you start a non-directional hypothesis?

A

‘There will be a difference in…’

81
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

An unwanted/ nuisance variable.
Something that can interfere with the DV in a study, causing the results to be invalid if not controlled.

82
Q

Extraneous variables can be subdivided into two types - participant and situational variables.
Describe these.

A

Participant - things about participants which can interfere with the study.
Situational - things about the environment which can interfere with the study.

83
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

They confused the results, causing them to be invalid.

84
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Any unwanted influence of the experimenter on the research outcome.

85
Q

What is randomisation?

A

The use of chance to control for the effect of bias.

86
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Keeping things standard for every person.
There is a list of what will happen in the study.
Standardised instructions are given to participants.
All participants should be subject to the same experiences.

87
Q

How can you control demand characteristics and investigator effects?

A

Single-blind procedures avoid demand characteristics-> participants not told details.
Double-blind procedures avoid demand characteristics and investigator effects -> the participant nor researcher conducting the study knows the main purpose or some information.

88
Q

Name the 4 experimental methods:

A

Laboratory
Field
Quasi
Natural

89
Q

What is a Laboratory experiment?

A

Takes place in a controlled environment, within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.

90
Q

What is a STRENGTH of a Laboratory experiment?

A

Cause and effect relationship can be established.
Easier replication increases confidence in results.

91
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of a Laboratory experiment?

A

Loss of ecological validity (artificial experiment)
Demand characteristics-> participants more aware of observation.. unnatural behaviour

92
Q

What is a Field experiment?

A

Takes place in a natural setting, within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

93
Q

What is a STRENGTH of a Field experiment?

A

Improved ecological validity (more natural, authentic, valid behaviour)
Less demand characteristics p, as participants are less aware.

94
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of Field experiments?

A

Loss of control of extraneous variables. Cause and effect harder to establish.
Precise replication is harder.
Ethical issues -> participants unaware.

95
Q

What is a Quasi study?

A

A study that is almost an experiment, but lacks key ingredients. The IV hasn’t been determined by anyone - the variables simply exist, such as being old or young.

96
Q

What is a STRENGTH of a Quasi study?

A

Control of extraneous variables - controlled conditions like laboratory.
It allows comparisons between different types of people.

97
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of a Quasi study?

A

Like natural ones, Quasi studies can’t randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables.

98
Q

What is a Natural experiment?

A

Where the change in the IV isn’t brought about by the researcher, but would’ve happened even if the researcher wasn’t there.

99
Q

What is a STRENGTH of Natural experiments?

A

Study of cognitive issues allows research where an IV can’t be directly manipulated for ethical reasons.
High external validity - more realistic.

100
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of Natural experiments?

A

Loss of control - IV not directly manipulated by experimenter, so less degree of control.
Reduces likelihood of established cause and effect.
Likelihood of desired behaviour displayed -> naturally-occurring IV may be rare, thus less research opportunities.

101
Q

What is an Experimental design?

A

How we set up our participants into conditions.

102
Q

What are the three experimental designs?

A

Independent groups/ measures design
Repeated measures design
Matched pairs/ participants design

103
Q

Describe the Independent Group/ measures design:

A

This is where different participants are used in each condition of the experiment.

104
Q

Describe the Repeated measures design:

A

This is where the same participants are used in all conditions of the experiment.

105
Q

Describe the Matched pairs/ experiment design?

A

This is where there are different participants used for each condition of the experiment, but they are matched and compared directly.

106
Q

What are order effects?

A

The participant’s performance in the second condition they complete may be affected (better or worse)

107
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Alternating the order in which participants experience the different conditions in a repeated measures design.

108
Q

How are order effects cancelled out through counterbalancing?

A

Half participants AB, other half BA.
So order effects cancelled out through counterbalancing (ABBA)

109
Q

What is a STRENGTH of the Independent groups (measures) design?

A

No order effects
Demand characteristics aren’t as likely

110
Q

What is a STRENGTH of the Independent groups (measures) design?

A

No order effects
Demand characteristics

111
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of Independent group/ measures design?

A

Subject variables differ.
More subjects required, so less economical.

112
Q

What is a STRENGTH of Repeated measures design?

A

Individual differences which can become extraneous variables are kept constant between conditions.
Fewer subjects required, so more economical.

113
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of Repeated measures design?

A

Order effects can become constant errors.
Demand characteristics are possible

114
Q

What is a STRENGTH of Matched pairs/ participant design?

A

Subject variables are kept consistent.
Less variation between conditions, so better statistical tests can be used.
Order effects don’t occur.
Demand characteristics are less likely.
The same tests can be used.

115
Q

What is a WEAKNESS of Matched pairs/ participant design?

A

Subject variables can’t be perfectly matched in every respect.
Matching subjects is time-consuming and difficult.
More subjects required asa they’re only used once, so less economical.

Psychology (9 decks)

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