Criminology: AC2.3 - JC

Question 1

Describe how Functionalist’s view society?

Answer 1

Functionalism views consensus and cooperation as fundamental to maintaining social order and stability - the Glue of Society

Consensus refers to the shared understanding and agreement among members of society about what is considered right and wrong, desirable and undersurface.

Question 2

Who are the key theorists of Functionalist?

Answer 2

Durkheim’s Functionalist Theory

Question 3

What are the four functions of crime according to a Functionalist?

Answer 3

BOUNDARY MAINTENANCE: Crime helps to clarify and reinforce societal norms and values by defining what is considered unacceptable behaviour. Punishments provide a clear message to the rest of society about the boundaries of acceptable conduct.

SOCIAL CHANGE: Deviant behaviour can challenge established norms and prompt social change. By breaking the rules, criminals can expose flaws or outdated aspects of culture, leading to reforms and improvements. For instance, acts of civil disobedience have historically led to significant social progress, such as the civil rights movement.

SAFETY VALVES: Minor crimes can act as a safety valve, allowing individuals to express discontent or release social pressure without causing major disruption. This function helps to prevent more serious and widespread forms of deviance or rebellion by providing as controlled outlet for societal frustrations.

Warning Devices: Crime can function as an early warning system, indicating underlying social problems or tensions that need to be addressed. When crime rates rise, it may signal issues such as economic inequality, social disintegration, or institutional failures.

Question 4

How can you apply Functionalism to crime?

Answer 4

Durkheim: Key Quote

‘Crime is normal … an integral (essential) part of all healthy societies’

Question 5

What do Functionalists believe about crime?

Answer 5

According to this theory, each element of society, including norms, customs, and institutions, has a function that contributes to the overall stability and functioning of the social system. Because of this need for order and progress Durkheim theories that a certain level of crime is in fact good or essential for a healthy society, as it reflects the presence of individual creativity and variation within the social framework. Without crime, society could stagnate, unable to evolve or adapt to new challenges and environments. Thus, in Durkheim’s functionalism, criminality is not merely a social I’ll but a crucial component of a dynamic, evolving society.

Question 6

What examples can you use to support the Functionalist view of crime and apply the theory to real life?

Answer 6

Albert Cohen: STATUS FRUSTRATION

Cohen agrees with Merton, that deviance results from the lower classes’ failure to achieve legitimate means, however he also believes that:

A) Subcultural deviance is a group response to failure, not an individual one
B) He focuses on non-utilitarian crimes (not for financial gain) e.g. vandalism

Question 7

Strengths of Functionalism

Answer 7

• It highlights how crime can reinforce societal norms and values by distinguishing acceptable from unacceptable behaviours
• The theory acknowledges the potential for crime to act as a catalyst for social change, promoting progress and adaptation within society
• by recognising crime as an inevitable aspect of society functionalism helps in creating realistic social policies

Question 8

Limiations of Functionalism

Answer 8

• The idea potentially downplays the experiences of victims
• It may be seen as overly deterministic, suggesting that crime is a necessary and unchangeable.
• Durkheim’s approach focuses on societal factors and may overlook the role of individual differences.

Question 9

What is Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 9

Merton offers a reason why people commit crime.

Question 10

What is the reason for crime according to Merton?

Answer 10

Merton States that deviance occurs when individuals find that that they cannot achieve the success goals of society in the normal way. There is ‘strain’ between the goals and people’s abilities to achieve them. This is due to the inequalities of society.

Question 11

What are the key elements of the ‘strain’? Merton’s Strain Theory

Answer 11

Everyone wants to achieve their goals however some sure to disadvantage can not (e.g. poverty, lack of education). So people find other was to achieve that end goal or make up for not having it.

The 4 ways of doing this:
1) Innovation
2) Ritualism
3) Retreatism
4) Rebelion

Question 12

What is a blocked opportunity and why do only some people experience it? Merton’s Strain Theory

Answer 12

Not everyone has an equal chance of achieving success due to upbringing or statues.

Question 13

What are the four possible deviant ways of adapting to Merton’s strain?

Answer 13

RITUALISM: Individuals abandon the societal goals but continue to conform to the accepted means. They follow rules and procedures rigidly even though they no longer aim for the societal goals, leading to a sense of aimlessness or resignation rather than criminality. (Acceptance)

RETREATISM: Individuals reject both the societal goals and the means. they withdraw from societal expectations altogether, which can manifest in behaviours like substance abuse or vagrancy, often viewed as non-conformist or deviant rather than strictly criminal. (Escape)

REBELLION: Individuals reject both the existing societal goals and means, and they seek to replace them with new ones. This can lead to radical or revolutionary behaviour, which may include acts of protest, insurrection, or terrorism, depending on the context and objectives. (Attack)

INNOVATION: Individuals accept the societal goals but reject or modify the means to achieve them. This often leads to criminal behaviour as they resort to unconventional or illegal methods, such as that or fraud, to reach these goals. This is the most common mode of adaptation within Merton’s framework. (Cheat)

Question 14

What are the subcultures of Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 14

Subcultures are groups whose norms and values are deviant so they apply Merton’s idea of a strain between goals and means.

Their key idea is that they enable members to gain status by illegitimate means.

Question 15

Functionalism - Cloward and Ohlin: Three Subcultures

Answer 15

Cloward and Ohlin argue that different neighbourhoods give rise to different types of deviant subcultures:

A) Criminal e.g. criminal career
B) Conflict e.g. gangs
C) Retreatist e.g. Mainly based on drug use

Question 16

Strengths of Merton - Strain Theory

Answer 16

• The theory can be applied to various types of deviant behaviour, not just criminal acts, providing a wide understanding of social deviance.
• By identifying “innovation” as a response to strain, Merton effectively explains why some individuals resort to criminal activities when legitimate means are unavailable.
• The theory suggests practical interventions, such as improving access to education and economic opportunities, to reduce societal strain and prevent crime.

Question 17

Limitations of Merton - Strain Theory

Answer 17

• Merton’s theory primarily focuses on financial successes this biases the working class as well as, potentially overlooking other motivations such as power, thrill-seeking, or Psychopathy.
• The broad categories of adaptation may oversimplify to empirically measure and differentiate to empirically measure and differentiate true causes.
• Merton’s framework is based on Western societal norms and values, which may not be applicable or relevant in explaining criminal behaviour in non-Western cultures or diverse societal contexts.

Question 18

What is the labelling theory?

Answer 18

Labelling theorists (otherwise known as interactions) argue that people come to identify and behave based upon how people label them.

Question 19

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy? (Labelling and Self-fulfilling Prophecy)

Answer 19

• Becker argues that the labelling process and society’s reaction to criminals can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, and thus a ‘deviant career’ .
• ‘Criminal’ becomes a person’s master status; they are seen as a criminal rather than a boyfriend, mother, daughter etc
• Those labelled as a criminal will go on to face rejection from many social groups and become placed as an ‘outsider’ in society. Many ‘legitimate’ opportunities become limited to them (e.g. good jobs) because of their criminal label, and they have to resort to crime.
• They may join with other who they can identify with and that provide them with support and understanding.

Question 20

What did Becker believe?
Differential (selective) Enforcement of Law

Answer 20

Social groups create deviance by creating the rules whose infraction (breaking) constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders.

Question 21

What is selective enforcement of law?

Answer 21

Becker argues that agents of social control use considerable discretion and selective judgment in deciding whether and how to deal with illegal behaviour.

Becker suggests that police operate with pre-existing conceptions and stereotypes, which influence how they deal with crime they come across.

Study: Piliavin and Briar found police decisions to arrest were based on stereotypical ideas about a person’s manner, dress, gender, class, ethnicity, time and place

Young males stopped late at night in high-rise areas were more likely to arrested.

Question 22

Lemert said the two key acts of deviance were primary and secondary, how would you define them
What is the deviant amplification spiral?

Answer 22

The attempt to control deviance through a crackdown, leads to it increasing rather than decreasing. This leads to even greater attempts to control the situation and yet more deviance. Essentially and escalating spiral has been created.

1) Media exaggeration - causing growing public concern

2) Moral entrepreneurs - calls for a crackdown - police respond by making arrests and this provokes more concern

3) Negative labelling e.g. labelling mods and rockers as ‘folk devils’ led to even more deviance.

Question 23

Labelling Theory

Answer 23

Typification: The process of categorized abstract concepts, representations, or notions into concrete entities or objects

Master Status: A status that has exceptional importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life

Self-fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that comes true at-least in part as a result of a person’s belief or expectation that the predication would come true.

Question 24

Interactionism and Crime Statistics

Answer 24

Interactionism reject the use of the crime statistics compiled by the police. they argue the statistics measure what the police do, not the criminals

For example, if the police stereotype working class males as criminals, then they spend more time pursuing this group.

Their statistics are a social construction.

Question 25

What is communism?

Answer 25

Marxists say that capitalism is BAD, that we should abolish it and cause a revolution. They think we should get rid of money and status and that everyone works for the good of society as a whole. This is called communism.

Question 26

What is capitalism?

Answer 26

According to Marxists we live in a CAPITALIST society, this is where people gain and keep their own wealth; where we have two classes - the rich and the poor.

Question 27

What is the difference between the proletariat and the bourgeoise?

Answer 27

Bourgeoisie - Red: - Ruling class - Have all the wealth in society - Have all the power in society - Own property, big businesses, land and factories (Ruling class want to keep ALL THE MONEY and ALL THE POWER They are also driven by PROFIT RICH GET RICHER, POOR STAY POOR) Proletariat - Blue: - Subject class - No wealth - No power - Do not own businesses - Have to sell their labour to survive (Subject class are too busy fighting each other to realise they are being oppressed They spend their whole life looking for higher wages)

Question 28

What do Marxists believe?

Answer 28

Traditional Marxists believe that crime fulfils the following functions: - It helps to enforce ruling class norms and values - The exploitation of the working class drives many people into poverty and crime becomes the only way to survive - Capitalism continually pushes consumer goods at people through advertising, resulting in utilitarian crimes (e.g. theft) to obtain them. - Inequality causes feelings of alienation and frustration, resulting in non-utilitarian crimes (e.g. violence and vandalism) - Capitalism causes crime among the capitalist themselves Capitalism is a dog-eat dog system and the profit motivates greed.

Question 29

Who do they believe is exploited and why?

Answer 29

The lower/working class as they do all of the hard labour in society for the rich upper class without any reward.

Question 30

What do they believe are the main reasons for crime?

Answer 30

It is a natural outcome of the inequalities and exploration interment in the modern economy. Marxist argues that laws are created and enforced in ways that primarily serve the interests of the ruling class. The legal system, therefore, functions is to protect property rights and maintain social order in favour of the rich, often criminalising behaviours that threaten their interests.

Question 31

What real life example could you use to support the Marxist view on crime?

Answer 31

There are laws against squatting and homelessness in public spaces, but no laws against the rich hording property or maintaining wealth through tax loopholes. These thinkers aim to highlight how this basis is linked to foundational cultural institutions that justify and normalise the disadvantages.

Question 32

What do realists believe about crime?

Answer 32

- Realist approaches differ greatly from theories such as Marxism, who state that crime is a social construction. - Realists argue that crime is a real problem to be tackled, and not just a social construction created by control agencies. - Realists argue that there has been a significant rise in the crime rate, especially in street crime, burglary and assault. - Are concerned about the widespread fear of crime and the impact of crime on its victims. - Argue that other theories have failed to offer realistic solutions to the problem.

Question 33

How do right realists view crime? (linked to Conservative Government)

Answer 33

Right realists have a right wing, conservative political outlook They see crime as a growing problem They want practical solutions that deal with the problem

Question 34

How do left realists view crime?

Answer 34

Left realists have a left wing, socialist political outlook They see inequality in capitalist society as the root cause of crime They argue the working class, ethnic minorities and women are the main victims Crime rates are high in working class areas

Question 35

What is the best way of tackling crime in the opinion of right realists?

Answer 35

They are in favour of control and punishment rather than rehabilitation or tackling Poverty

Question 36

What is the best way of tackling crime in the opinion of left realists?

Answer 36

There is also evidence that the police take these crimes less serious Left realists propose to reduce crime by making society more equal Lea and Young said there were three related causes of crime; relative deprivation, subculture and marginalisation

Question 37

Lea and Young said there are three explanations for crime, what are they and how would you define them?

Answer 37

Relative Deprivation: Subcultures: Marginalisation:

Question 38

Right realists argue that crime is the product of three factors, what are they and how you explain them?

Answer 38

Biological differences: - Wilson & Herrnstein (1985) put forward a bio-social theory about criminality arguing that crime is caused by a mixture of biological and social factors. - Biological differences make some people more predisposed to committing crime than others. For example, aggressiveness and low intelligence levels are inborn (natural). Inadequate Socialisation: - Effective socialisation (primarily from the family) reduces the risk of criminality, as it ensures transference of norms, values, right and wrong and self control. - When children are not brought up properly, (neglect, abuse etc.) this is called inadequate socialisation - Children who are socialised inadequately as a child have more risk of becoming offenders. Murray (1990) argues that crime is increasing because of a growing underclass who are failing to socialise their children properly. Offending is a rational choice: - The final element of crime is the rational choice theory – a theory that states everyone has free will and the power of reason. - Clarke (1980) argues the decision to commit crime is due to a choice based on a rational calculation of the consequences. If it is perceived the rewards outweigh the costs, then someone may turn to crime. - Right realists argue that at the moment in society, perceived costs of committing crime are low.

Question 39

What is Foucault’s Panopticon concept?

Answer 39

The panopticon is a design of institutional building with an inbuilt system of control, originated by the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) in the 18th century. An ethical jurist and social theorist, Betham is also regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximise happiness and well-being for all individuals. The word panopticon derives from the Greek word for "all seeing" – panoptes and describes a central observation tower placed within a circle of prison cells. From the tower, a guard can see every cell and inmate but the inmates can't see into the tower. Prisoners will never know whether or not they are being watched.

Question 40

What is the purpose of the ‘Panopticon’?

Answer 40

Bentham theorised that the key thing that brought the manager of the panopticon prison into line with the duty to be humane was publicity and he encouraged public discussion of, and investment in, the prison system. For Betham, the panopticon was a design that allowed the imprisoned to become the manager of their own imprisonment and that of others, through self-surveillance. As the watchmen cannot be seen, they need not be on duty at all times, effectively leaving the watching to the watched. According to Bentham's design, the prisoners would also be used as menial labour, walking on wheels to spin looms or run a water wheel. This would decrease the cost of the prison and give a possible source of income. Michel Foucault (1926-1984), a French intellectual, philosopher and critic, expanded on Bentham’s idea of the panopticon into a symbol of social control that extends into everyday life for all citizens, not just those in the prison system (Foucault 1970). He argued that we are controlled through self-surveillance, which he calls ‘disciplinary power’ In the Panopticon, prisoners are visible to the guards from a central viewing point, but prisoners cannot see the guards. Prisoners don’t know when they are being watched and therefore have to behave as if they are being watched

Question 41

How would you explain synoptic surveillance and what would be an example of this?

Answer 41

Mathiesen argues that as well as surveillance in the Panopticon, we also have surveillance from below. He calls this ‘Synopticon’ where everybody watches everybody Motorists and cyclists can monitor the behaviour of others by using a dashboard camera or helmet camera. This could mean other road users exercise self-discipline

Question 42

What is actuarial justice and profiling?

Answer 42

Actuarial comes from the insurance industry, an actuary is someone who calculates the risk of certain events happening e.g., the likelihood you will be burgled Feeley and Simon see actuarial justice as a new form of surveillance. It aims to predict and prevent. Statistics can be used to reduce crime by creating profiles of likely offenders

Question 43

Strengths of Marxism

Answer 43

- Marxism highlights the role of power and class struggle in the creation and enforcement of laws, offering insights into how legal systems can perpetuate social inequalities - By situating crime within the broader context of capitalist society, it explains how social contribute to criminality, rather than attributing crime solely to individual moral failings. - Marxism's links between social structure and deviance suggest strong realistic policy incentives that may alleviate crime

Question 44

Limitations of Marxism

Answer 44

- Critics argue that Marxist theory overly focuses on economic factors, potentially neglecting other important influences on criminal behaviour, such as psychological, cultural, or biological factors - The theory may not adequately explain forms of crime directly, it only applies a general justification for the fact there is crime. - Marxist theory tends to view laws primarily as tools of the ruling class, which can oversimplify the complex nature of legal systems and their development.

Question 45

Strengths of Labeling Theory

Answer 45

- Labeling theory acknowledges the importance of social interactions and societal reactions in shaping criminal behaviour, providing and understanding of crime beyond individual traits. - The theory sheds light on the mechanisms of social control, within society, revealing how labeling processes contribute to the marginalisation and stigmatisation of individuals involved in criminal activities

Question 46

Limitations of Labeling Theory

Answer 46

- Labeling theory often overlooks individual agency and personal responsibility - Labeling theory tends to focus on the consequences of labeling rather than addressing the underlying causes of criminal behaviour, potentially neglecting important factors such as socioeconomic inequality, psychological predispositions, and structural issues within society.

Question 47

Strengths of Surveillance Theory

Answer 47

- Surveillance theory is supported by empirical evidence demonstrating that individuals often modify their behaviour in response to the presence of surveillance, whether it's from authority figures, peers, or digital technologies - The theory has practical implications for crime prevention strategies, informing the design and implementation of surveillance systems and interventions aimed at reducing criminal behaviour. - Surveillance theory goes beyond the use of observation and has helped develop parallel predictors and monitors for crime such as actuarial justice

Question 48

Limitations of Surveillance Theory

Answer 48

- Surveillance theory tends to prioritize deterrence - based approaches to crime prevention, overlooking other factors that contribute to criminal behaviour, e.g. systemic injustices, or poverty - The pervasive use of surveillance technologies raises ethical and legal concerns regarding privacy invasion, data protection

Question 49

Strengths of Left Realism

Answer 49

- Left realism places a strong emphasis on understanding crime from the perceptive of victims, which highlights the real-life impact of criminal behaviour and informs more empathetic and effective response. - It acknowledges the role of structural inequalities and social injustices in contributing to crime, aiming towards root causes - Left realism's focus on community empowerment and social intervention strategies offers practical avenues for addressing crime through practical policy making.

Question 50

Limitations of Left Realism

Answer 50

- Critics argue that Left realism may downplay the role of individual choices and ignore the importance of personal responsibility - Its emphasis on relative deprivation as a primary cause of crime may oversimplify nature of criminal behaviour, ignoring other contributing factors such as psychological and biological influences - While Left realism advocates for community - based approaches to crime prevention, it may struggle to crime prevention, it may struggle to offer comprehensive solutions to deeply entrenched social problems such as poverty, racism, and inequality.

Question 51

Strengths of Right Realism

Answer 51

- Right realist theory emphasises the importance of personal agency decision-making in understanding criminal behaviour, which can help promote accountability amount offenders - It promotes practical solutions, by prioritising measures to increase the perceived costs of crime, such as stricter law enforcement and harsher penalties, right realism offers useful strategies for reducing criminal activity - Right realist theory suggests highly specific interventions, such as promoting family values and community cohesion, that can guide policymakers in designing crime prevention initiatives

Question 52

Limitations of Right Realism

Answer 52

- Critics argue that right realist theory neglects the role of government in creating social and economic inequalities that encourage criminal behaviour, focusing too heavily on individual choices without considering the alternatives - By focusing on Punishment and crime prevention strategies that target individual behaviour, right realism may fail to address the underlying root causes of crime, such as poverty, unemployment, and social exclusion - Pensalism may exacerbate social divisions. The emphasis on personal responsibility and moral values in right realist theory can potentially stigmatise and shame marginalized communities, rather than addressing the structural barriers they face.