Criminology: AC2.1 - JC

Question 1

What was Lombroso the father of and what year was his theory put forward?

Answer 1

Father of Modern Criminology
In 1876 Lombroso published his first first study that argued ‘the criminal is a separate species’, a species that is between modern and primitive humans.

Question 2

What physical features did Lombroso associate with criminals?

Answer 2

Atavism - traits:
- Enormous jaws
- High cheek bones
- handle - shaped ears
- prominent eyebrow arches

Question 3

What did Lombroso say about criminals?

Answer 3

Argues that certain individuals are ‘born criminals’ and can be identified by physical anomalies or stigmata.

Question 4

Why did Lombroso say criminals were like savages?

Answer 4

He believed these traits were throwbacks to more primitive human forms and predisposed individuals to deviant behaviour.

Question 5

What determined whether someone was a criminal or not according to Lombroso?

Answer 5

There physical features

Question 6

Strengths of Lombroso’s Ativism

Answer 6

• First person to give criminology a scientific credibility
• Goring (1913) did find a low-order intelligence in convicts, suggesting some genetic base to criminality
• His work heralded the beginning of offender profiling
• Butcher and Taylor (2007) suggests that less attractive individuals are more likely to be considered guilty

Question 7

Limitations of Lombroso’s Ativism

Answer 7

• Lacks a control group to make comparisons with
• Lack of accuracy due to possible disfiguration
• Not everyone with atavistic features is a criminal and not all criminals have them
• Scientific racism - DeLisi (2012) many of the atavistic features defined are specific to people of African descent

Question 8

What were the three body types according to Sheldon?

Answer 8

• Ectomorph
• Mesomorph
• Endomorph

Question 9

What body type did Sheldon believe was most likely to engage in criminal behaviour?

Answer 9

Mesomorph

Question 10

Why did Sheldon believe this body type was the most likely to engage in criminal behaviour?

Answer 10

Mesomorphs posses a muscular and athletic build, suggesting according to Sheldon they are more inclined towards aggressive and assertive behaviours, making them more prone to engage in criminal activities.

Question 11

What personality traits did Sheldon associate with each body type?

Answer 11

Ectomorph - Tall, thin ~ Self-conscious, fragile, introverted, and shows emotional restraint
Mesomorph - Musucalar with strong limbs and broad shoulders ~ Aggressive, assertive and powerful.
Endomorph - Short, round, wide hips and lacking muscle ~ Sociable, relaxed and outgoing

Question 12

Strength of Sheldon

Answer 12

• A number of studies have confirmed that there is a small association between bodily build and criminality
• Gluek and Gluek found that 60% of delinquent population to be mesomorphs compared to 13% in a control group
• A sample of 200 which was compared to non-offender students who were studied under controlled condition.

Question 13

Limitation of Sheldon

Answer 13

• Labelling may play some part in the theories fulfillment - mesomorphs can be labeled as ‘troublemakers’ because they fit the tough guy stereotypes
• Somatotypes are not fixed and can change overtime
• Does not explain how ectomorphs and endomorphs can also be viewed as criminals

Question 14

What were Christensen’s (1977) findings?

Answer 14

Investigated 3586 twins pairs born in eastern half of Denmark between 1881 and 1910
- Found a 52% concordance rate between MZ twins (i.e. where one identical twins had a conviction, there was a 52% chance of the other twin also having one)
- Among non-identical twins (DZ), it was only a 22% chance.

Question 15

What were Lange (1929) findings?

Answer 15

• Investigated 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins
• Found that 10 of the 13 MZ twins had both served time in prison
• Only 2 of 17 DZ twins had both served time in prison

Question 16

What is a concordance rate?

Answer 16

The probability (as a %) that if one twin has a characteristic the other twin will have the characteristic

Question 17

What is the difference between Monozygotic and Dizygotic twins?

Answer 17

Monozygotic Twins - Born at the same time but came from one egg and share 100% DNA
Dizygotic Twins - Born at the same time but come from two separate eggs and share 50% of the DNA

Question 18

Why are Twin Studies used when assessing ‘criminal genes’?

Answer 18

They share 100% of the same DNA

Question 19

Strength of Twin Studies

Answer 19

• Twin Studies are natural experiments as the biological relationship between the twins is naturally ongoing
• Mz twins are genetically identical and is therefore logical to explain whether their offending behaviour is also identical
• Results of twin studies have helped in prevention of vulnerable disorders

Question 20

Limitation of Twin Studies

Answer 20

• The small sample involved in twin studies may not be representative of the general population
• If twins are brought up in the same environment, criminality could just be as easily related to nature as to genetics.
• If genes were the only cause of criminality identical twins would show 100% concordance, but studies usually show around half or less.

Question 21

Why do researchers use adoption studies?

Answer 21

These studies compare the criminal tendencies of adopted children with those of their biological and adoptive parents, providing valuable insights into the nature versus nurture debate.

Question 22

What were Mednick et el’s findings?

Answer 22

• Studied adopted children and found no relationship between the number of criminal convictions adopted parents had and their adopted offspring
• However, there was a significant correlation between the number of criminal convictions of biological parents and offspring

Question 23

What were Hutchings and Mednick’s findings?

Answer 23

• Studied 14,000 adopted children and found a high proportion of boys with criminal convictions had biological parents with criminal convictions
• This suggests that there is a strong link between genetics and criminality.

Question 24

What is the thinking behind adoption studies?

Answer 24

One of the central there’s derived from adoption studies is the biosocial theory, which posits that genetic predispositions to criminal behaviour can be significantly influenced by environmental factors. For instance, research has shown that spotted children whose biological parents have a history of criminal behaviour are more likely to engage in criminal activities themselves, even when raise in non-criminal adoptive families. This suggests a genetic component to criminality.

Question 25

Strength of Adoption studies

Answer 25

- Adoption studies overcome the problem faced by Twin Studies, where biologically identical twins are brought up in the same household, which makes it impossible to separate out the influence of genes from the environment - Adoption studies are exposed to a different environment to twin studies and therefore it's easier to see difference - Findings from adoptive studies give some support to genetic explanations. They show that adoptees were more likely to have criminal record if their biological parent had one

Question 26

Limitations of Adoption studies

Answer 26

- The age of adoption may mean the adopted children have already been influenced by their natural parents or foster environment - The adoption process is not always random, as often children are placed with parents like their biological families - Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that adoption studies have little effect on criminality and that biological determiners are what count for the results

Question 27

Gene-Environment Interaction

Answer 27

- Genetic theories highlight that genes and environmental factors interact to influence criminal behaviour - This underscores the idea that genetics alone do not determine criminality; it's the interplay between genes and environment that matters

Question 28

Candidate Genes and Criminality

Answer 28

- Some studies have identified candidate genes associated with criminal behaviour, but these genes do not determine criminality on their own. - They are often linked to traits like impulsivity and aggression, which can increase the risk of criminal behaviour when combined with environmental factors.

Question 29

Chromosomes

Answer 29

Chromosomes are stands of 'condensed DNA.' On these chromosomes you find individual genes for every physical characteristic. Humans have 46 chromosomes divided into 23 'pairs'.

Question 30

Genes

Answer 30

Genes are 'units' of DNA which code for one or more characteristics and are inherited from a person's parents

Question 31

What is the XYY theory?

Answer 31

Sex is determined by the pattern of a person's chromosomes: XX = Female XY = Male There are conditions in which people can be born with 'additional' chromosomes. One such condition is known as XYY

Question 32

What traits are associated with the XYY theory?

Answer 32

Jacob et al (1965) - XYY men are known as 'super-males' and are more aggressive and violent than males with a single Y chromosome - Jacob et al. Found that XYY men are over-represented in prison. 15 in 1000 men have the condition in prison - compared to 1 in 1000 in the general population

Question 33

What are the key chromosomal differences in XYY?

Answer 33

Proponents of the theory speculated that the presence of an extra Y chromosome could lead to an overabundance of testosterone, predisposing individuals to impulsivity, violence, and criminal behaviour. However, subsequent research has unveiled a more nuanced understanding of XYY syndrome. While individuals with this chromosomal variation may indeed face distinct challenges, including learning disabilities and developmental delays, the direct link between XYY syndrome and criminality has been called into question.

Question 34

What is the key study for XYY theory and what were the findings? (Include statistics)

Answer 34

Advancements in genetic research have revealed that the vast majority of individuals with XYY syndrome lead law-abiding lives, debunking the notion of an inherent criminal predisposition solely attributable to chromosomal anomalies.

Question 35

What criminal could you reference when discussing the XYY theory and why?

Answer 35

It has been said that John Wayne Gacy may have had XYY syndrome. He sexually assaulted, tortured and murdered at least 33 men in the USA.

Question 36

Strength of XYY (Super-males)

Answer 36

- Jacobs et al (1965) found that a significant number of offenders in prison has the XYY sex chromosomes - Adler et al (2007) indicated that it is possible that aggressive and violent behaviour is partly determined by genetic features. - Prince and What more found some links between syndrome and property crime.

Question 37

Limitations of XYY (Super-males)

Answer 37

- Studies have found that genetic abnormalities are widespread throughout general population (1 in 1000) and therefore do not explain aggression - Focusing too heavily on genetics ignores their Behaviourist approach. Even if some violent offenders do have the syndrome it does not prove the cause of violence. - XYY males are tall and well built, so get labelled as violent criminals, so may get longer sentences given to them making them the over-represented prisoner. Low intelligence caused by the syndrome may also cause them to get caught.

Question 38

Who was Phineas Gage and what happened to him?

Answer 38

- Railroad Accident - Sept 1848 - Leveling land with Dynamite - 3-foot inch thick tamping rod was projected into his brain - Entered via cheek, left Eye and into the frontal lobes - Driven by other workers in an ox-cart to Doctor's office - The rod damaged the prefrontal cortex. This region is implicated in personality changes and aggression / violence. - Lost conscious and had convulsion immediately, but awoke quickly and was talking and walking soon afterwards - Never showed any impairment of movement or speech - Memory was intact, and was capable of learning new things - However, within months his personality had changed dramatically - He became extravagant and anti-social, a foul mouth lair with bad manners, frequently got into fights and assaults - Could no longer hold a job or plan his future - According to friends 'Gage was no longer Gage' he died 13 years later

Question 39

What brain diseases have been linked to criminal or anti-social behaviour?

Answer 39

- Some diseases have been linked with criminal or anti-social behaviour. Brain diseases such as dementia, Huntington's disease and brain tumours have been linked to various forms of deviant or anti-social behaviour - Abnormal brainwave activity is measured by an electroencephalograph (EEG)

Question 40

What are the three types of biochemical explanations?

Answer 40

1) Sex Hormones 2) Blood sugar levels 3) Substance abuse

Question 41

Can you provide one fact about each explanation?

Answer 41

Sex Hormones: MALES - Overproduction or underproduction of hormones may cause emotional disturbance that lead to criminal behaviour. Blood Sugar - Brain relies on a stable supply of glucose as its primary energy source. When blood sugar levels are either too high or too low, cognitive functions such as decision making, impulse control and emotional regulation are impaired. - Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause confusion - High blood sugar (hyperglycemia) often associated with diabetes Substance Abuse - Profound impact on brain function and behaviour. Can effect judgement, self control, and increases the likelihood of criminal behaviour. Alcohol reduces inhibition and impairs decision - making Opiates, including heroin and prescription painkillers, slow brain activity Addiction cause crime and is a crime Nutritional Deficit - Diet and nutrition are equally crucial in shaping brain health and behaviour. A poor balanced diet can negatively effect mood, energy levels, cognitive function. Diets high in fat and sugar have been linked to impaired memory, reduced focus. Nutritional deficiencies, especially in Omega - 3, fatty acids and other vitamin can impair brain development and lead to increased aggression, anxiety and behavioural problems.

Question 42

How can sex hormones influence criminal behaviour? Provide an answer for both males and females

Answer 42

- The overproduction or underproduction of male hormones may cause emotional disturbances that lead to criminal behaviour. Males of most species are more aggressive than females and the male sec hormone, testosterone has been linked with serious crimes. - Premenstrual tension (PMT), post-war depression and lactation (breastfeeding) have all been accepted as partial defences for women changed with different crimes on grounds that the hormones involved affected the defendant's judgement, mood or self-control

Question 43

Strength of Brain Injuries

Answer 43

- In a few extreme cases, brain injury or disease has led to major changes in an individual's personality and behaviour, including criminality - There is some correlation between abnormal EEG readings (which measure brainwave activity) and psychopathic criminality - Prisoners are more likely than non-prisoners to have a brain injury

Question 44

Limitations of Brain Injuries

Answer 44

- Crimes caused by brain injury or disease are rare. The sufferer's original personality is more important in whether they engage in crime. - It is not clear that abnormal brainwave activity causes psychopathic criminality. Some psychopaths have normal EEG patterns and some normal people have abnormal EEG patterns - Prisoners higher likelihood of brain injury could be a result of their criminality (e.g. getting into fights), rather than a cause of it.

Question 45

Strengths of Neurochemical Theories

Answer 45

- Sexual hormones, blood sugar levels and substance abuse can affect mood, judgement and aggression - Testosterone levels and male offending both peak around the same age, suggesting hormones affect criminal behaviour - Alcohol produces disinhibition, reducing self-control and leading to criminal behaviour, particularly violence Crack cocaine has been strongly linked to violence crime

Question 46

Limitations of Neurochemical Theories

Answer 46

- Biochemical processes may predispose some individuals to offend, but it may require an environmental 'trigger' to cause actual offending - Scarmella and Brown found testosterone levels do not greatly affect aggression levels in most men - Schalling found high testosterone levels in young males led to verbal aggression, but not physical violence.

Question 47

Phenotype and Genotype

Answer 47

Phenotype - Outward characteristics Genotype - Internal Characteristics

Question 48

Brain injuries

Answer 48

Charles Whitman also known as the 'Texas Tower Sniper' murdered 16 people including stabbing his wife and mother then climbing up a tower and randomly shooting and milling people including a pregnant woman and wounding 31 others. Whitman was shot dead shortly after. Upon earth Whitman's autopsy discovered a pecan sized tumor through to have made him commit the murders.