Criminology: AC2.2 - JC

Question 1

Who was Freud and what did believe came from childhood experiences?

Answer 1

• Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behaviour.
• Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person’s past is is hidden from consciousness and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses)

Question 2

What is the id?

Answer 2

Present at birth and operates on the pleasure principle - it gets what it wants. For example, its desire for food, sleep and sex

Question 3

What is the superego?

Answer 3

Develops around the age of 5 years old and it works on the morality principle. For example, we may be punished for trying to satisfy our urges without considering others.

Question 4

What is the ego?

Answer 4

Develops at around the age of two and it works on the reality principle. It reduces conflict between the ID & SUPEREGO using defence mechanisms. For example, a child says please to obtain what it wants.

Question 5

Psychodynamic theories see anti-social behaviour as what?

Answer 5

Freud suggested that the part of the mind we know about is simply ‘the trip of an iceberg’. Most of our mind is unconscious - these are biological drives that determine our behaviour & personality. These unconscious forces drive all behaviour - including criminality.

Question 6

Strengths of Psychodynamics Theory

Answer 6

• Emphasizes the impact of early experiences on behaviour, aiding in identifying root causes of criminality.
• Explores hidden motivations behind criminal behaviour, leading to deeper psychological insights. This comprehensive understanding has lead favourably to policy development and support.
• Highlights how individuals rationalize or justify criminal acts, useful for therapeutic interventions

Question 7

Limitations of Psychodynamics Theory

Answer 7

• Concepts are difficult to measure and validate scientifically
• Focuses predominantly on sexual and aggressive drives, potentially oversimplifying criminal behaviour
• The focus on subconscious drives suggests limited individual control over behaviour, underestimating free will and social influences

Question 8

Who was Bowlby?

Answer 8

John Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation suggests that prolonged separation from a primary caregiver, particularly during the critical period of the first few years of life, can have severe and irreversible effects on a child’s emotional and social development.

Question 9

What did Bowlby believe the impact of maternal deprivation was?

Answer 9

Critical period: Bowlby proposed that a child (30 months) needs a consistent, warm, and responsive caregiver (usually the mother) during a sensitive developmental period. If this bond is disrupted without a suitable substitute, the child may fail to develop a secure attachment.

Question 10

How did Bowlby link maternal deprivation and criminal behaviour?

Answer 10

Consequences of Deprivation:
Emotional Dysregulation - Lack of early attachment can hinder the development of empathy and the ability to regulate emotions.
Affectionless Psychopathy - Bowlby caned this term for individuals who lack empathy, guilt and the capacity to form meaningful emotional relationship
Delinquency - Bowlby linked maternal deprivation to an increased likelihood of antisocial behaviour, lowered IQ, delinquency, and potential criminality.

Question 11

What were Bowlby’s findings in his study on 44 juvenile thieves?

Answer 11

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study investigated the link between maternal deprivation and delinquency. He studied 88 children from a child guidance clinic: 44 were identified as thieves, and the other 44 served as a control group. Bowlby found that 14 of the thieves displayed characteristics of “affectionless Psychopathy,” such a a lack of empathy or guilt, and 12 of these 14 had experienced prolonged maternal separation during their early years.

Question 12

Strengths for Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivations

Answer 12

• Empirical support: Bowlby’s theory is backed by his own research, such as the 44 Thieves Study, which found a higher incidence of maternal deprivation in delinquent controls.
• Emphasis on early childhood: The theory underscores the crucial role of early childhood experiences and primary attachments in shaping future behaviour, influencing subsequent research and practices in child development and psychology
• Policy impact: Bowlby’s work has influenced child care policies and practices, promoting the importance of maintaining family bonds and providing support to families to prevent early separations

Question 13

Limitations for Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivations

Answer 13

• Overemphasis on mother: The theory primarily focuses on the mother-child bond, potentially overlooking the role of father’s, other caregivers, and broader social factors in a child’s development
• Determinism: It suggests that early deprivation inevitably leads to negative outcomes, which may not account for individual resilience and the potential for recovery and change through later positive experiences
• Simplistic view of criminality: Criminal behaviour is complex and multifaceted; attributing it primarily to early maternal deprivation may oversimplify the various social, genetic, and environmental factors that contribute to criminality.

Question 14

What were Eysenck’s three personality dimensions?

Answer 14

• Extraverted
• Introverted
• Neurotic

Question 15

What traits did Eysenck associate with extraverted?

Answer 15

• Loud
• Chatty
• Excited

Question 16

What traits did Eysenck associate with introverted?

Answer 16

• Quiet
• Lonely
• Peaceful

Question 17

What traits did Eysenck associate with neurotic?

Answer 17

• Worry
• Fear
• Overly emotional

Question 18

What did the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire measure and what did he find?

Answer 18

• Eysenck believed that certain personality types were more likely to commit crimes
• He carried out a questionnaire on 700 soldiers who were being treated for neurotic disorders. He used their answers to develop different personality traits

Question 19

What personality did Eysenck believe criminals had?

Answer 19

He found criminal personalities score high on both, so they are strongly extroverted and neurotic.

Question 20

What did Eysenck say about psychoticism?

Answer 20

He later added psychoticism as a third personality dimension and said these are individuals who are cruel, lack empathy and aggressive - they are more likely to engage in crime

Question 21

Strengths of Eysenck’s Personality Theory

Answer 21

• Eysenck’s theory has garnered empirical support through research studies linking personality traits, particularly extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, to criminal behaviour.
• The theory provides a framework for understanding and potentially predicting criminal behaviour, which can inform intervention strategies and rehabilitation programs.
• Eysenck’s theory integrates biological factors such as genetics and brain functioning, offering a comprehensive approach to understanding the roots of criminality

Question 22

Limitations of Eysenck’s Personality Theory

Answer 22

• Farrington examined a range of studies. These shows prisoners are neurotic and psychotic, but not extraverted.
• The E scale (extraversion) may be measuring two separate things: impulsiveness and sociability. Offenders score highly on impulsiveness (they lack self-control), but not sociability (they are loners)
• Evidence on prisoners shows a correlation between personality type and criminality, but this doesn’t prove that personality type causes criminality. It could be the other way round, being in prison might cause people to become neurotic.

Question 23

What is the difference between imitation and learned attitudes?

Answer 23

Imitation of criminal acts: individuals observe those around them and therefore copy and learn the same skills
Learned attitudes: through socialisation every individual is exposed to attitudes and values about the law. Some may favourable and unfavourable views on the law.

Question 24

Sutherland’s Differential Association

Answer 24

Sutherland’s Differential Association theory provides its understanding of criminality by emphasis go the social processes through which individuals learn deviant behaviour. Unlike parallel theories that for use on individual traits or structural factors, Sutherland suggests that criminal behaviour is gained through interaction with others and that individuals are seen as active agents who engage in a continuous process of learning through their social environment.

Criminal behaviour is not innate but acquired.

Normalisation plays a critical role in understanding Sutherland’s theory. Recurrent exposure to communication about, and rationalisations for behaviour from others create a foundation of normalcy. If they are frequent or persistent enough these can also excuse or romanticise deviance.

Question 25

How Differential Association can occour

Answer 25

Exposure to Pro-criminal Norms: - In the environments where criminal behaviour is common individuals learn to see deviance as ordinary or even preferable - Example: Theft in impoverished places may be seen as "necessary" or "justified" for survival Normalization of Criminal Rationalizations: - Individuals can be taught justifications or excuses for deviant behaviour ("The system is rigged, so breaking the laws is okay") - These ideas reduce the moral implications of committing crimes Reinforcement Through Group Dynamics: - Groups with a strong presence of deviant behaviour fosters an environment where criminality is expected or celebrated. - Example: In gang culture, violence or theft may glorified.

Question 26

What did Sutherland (differential association theory) find in his study of white-collar crime?

Answer 26

Sutherland found that group attitudes in the workplace often normalised criminal behaviour (e.g. by claiming that 'everyone's doing it'). This made it easier for individual members to justify their own behaviour.

Question 27

Strengths of Differential Association

Answer 27

- Sutherland's theory shifts the focus from individual traits to social interactions, providing a more comprehensive understanding of criminal behaviour - Differential Association theory has received empirical support through numerous studies demonstrating the influence of peer groups e.g. Mathews found juvenile offenders were much more likely to have criminal parents who provided exemplary deviance - The theory's emphasis on learning allows for the incorporation of various factors making it adaptable to different contexts

Question 28

Limitations of Differential Association

Answer 28

- While learning plays a significant role, the theory may overlook other factors such as biological predispositions or structural inequalities that contribute to criminal behaviour - The theory does not provide clear guidelines on how to measure or quantify the impact of differential associations, making it challenging to test empirically and apply elsewhere. - Differential Association theory may downplay the role of individual agency and rational decision-making in criminal behaviour, potentially oversimplifying complex social phenomena. Individuals might be exposed to criminal skills but this does not guarantee practices.

Question 29

Who is B. F. Skinner and what did he believe about behaviour?

Answer 29

Skinner's operant conditioning theory offers insights into the development of criminal behaviour. According to Skinner, individuals learn behaviours through the consequences of their actions. In the context of criminality, this means that individuals may engage in criminal behaviours if they have been reinforced or rewarded for them in the past. For example, if someone has experienced positive outcomes such as monetary gain or social status through criminal activities, they may be more likely to continue engaging in those behaviours.

Question 30

What did Skinner's research involve?

Answer 30

Skinner's box where a rat was placed, and rewarded with a treat every time it exhibited a desired behaviour of pushing a lever. This was studied to see if the rewarding of this behaviour would result in the action being carried out again. This was also done with negative Reinforcement when the rat was shocked until the lever was pushed down.

Question 31

What is behaviourism?

Answer 31

The cause of someone's behaviour is shaped by the Reinforcement and punishments

Question 32

Strengths of Operant Conditioning

Answer 32

- The theory's emphasis on environmental influences providers practical insights for interventions aimed at preventing or reducing criminal behaviour - It acknowledges that behaviour is influenced by individual experiences and reinforcement histories, allowing for personalised interventions - Jeffery found that if a crime offers more rewarding than pushing outcomes, they will still likely

Question 33

Limitations of Operant Conditioning

Answer 33

- Critics argue that the theory oversimplifies the complexities of human behaviour and ignore other factors such as genetics, cognitive processes, and societal structures. - While operant conditioning can explain some aspects of criminal behaviour, it may not fully account for the diversity and unpredictability of human actions, Skinner's use of arts' behaviour are only partially applicable to human behaviour - The use of reinforcement and punishment in altering behaviour raises ethical concerns, especially regarding the potential for coercion or manipulation in interventions aimed at reducing criminality.

Question 34

Who was Albert Bandura (Social Learning Theory) and what did he argue about behaviour?

Answer 34

- American psychologist Albert Bandura acknowledged the fact that we learn from our mole models - Bandura argued that people learn by watching the behaviour of others. If a person watches another being rewarded for behaviour, they are more likely to copy that behaviour. This is known as vicarious Reinforcement. - Alternatively, we can watch someone be punished for their behaviour, and this will make it less likely the behaviour is repeated.

Question 35

What did Bandura study involve and what were the three control groups?

Answer 35

Bandura et al conducted a study with 4-5 year olds by placing Bobo dolls in a room with other toys around. There were three groups, that were shown a video of an adult being verbally and physical aggressive towards the doll. Group 1: The model was rewarded with praise Group 2: The model was punished Group 3: The behaviour wasn't punished or rewarded (they were the control group)

Question 36

What were Bandura’s findings?

Answer 36

Group 1: He found that the children with role models who were aggressive towards the dolls copied their behaviour Group 2: The children with role models who were punished were least likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour Group 3: Imitated the behaviour, however, less aggressively

Question 37

How can Bandura’s findings be applied to crime?

Answer 37

Whether they imitated or not was dependent on the consequence they had observed for the role model. Bandura's SLT was famously demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo dolls study, where children who observed adults acting aggressively towards a Bobo dolls were more likely to imitate that aggression. This study highlights the concept of modeling, where individuals learn behaviours by watching others, particularly those they view as role models.

Question 38

Social Learning Theory - Case Study ~ James Bulger

Answer 38

Jon Venables and Robert Thompson the killers of James Bulger were said to have watched the film Child's Play 3 before the murders. The judge said 'It is not for me to pass judgement on their upbringing, but I suspect exposure to violent video films may in part be an explanation.' (Mr Justice Morland, Trial Judge)

Question 39

Strengths of Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Answer 39

- Bandura's Social Learning Theory offers a comprehensive understanding of criminal behaviour by considering both individual and environmental factors - Bandura's well designed study means there is substantial empirical evidence supporting the role of social learning in the development of criminality, reinforcing the validity of the theory - The theory provides practical insights for interventions and prevention strategies by targeting environmental influences and promoting positive role models.

Question 40

Limitations of Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Answer 40

- SLT may oversimplify the complex nature of criminal behaviour by primarily focusing on observable behaviour and neglecting internal cognitive processes. - Ignores Biological Factors: The theory minimizes the role of biological predispositions and genetic influences in criminality, which may be significant is some cases - While SLT explains how criminal behaviour is acquired, it may struggle to predict when and under what circumstances individuals will engage in criminal acts.

Question 41

What does cognition mean?

Answer 41

The term 'cognition' refers to the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. - Defined as an ability to process information

Question 42

How did Yochelson and Samenow apply cognitive theory to crime?

Answer 42

- Cognitive theories of crime argue that these mental processes shape our behaviour. They explain criminal behaviour as a defect in moral thinking, thought processes, and mental development - Help us to understand how an individual's personality and intelligence level are linked to delinquency - Focus on how we perceive the world around us, how we think, and the factors that influence our mental development (family upbringing, parental modelling, personality, intelligence). These theories help to explain how we develop morally in our thought process.

Question 43

What did Yochelson and Samenow (1976) - 'A Study of Thinking Patterns in Criminals' - the 'thinking errors' Theory - study involve?

Answer 43

- Psychologists Yochelson and Samenow have applied cognitive theory to criminality. - They believe criminals are prone to faulty thinking which then means they are more likely to commit crime. Key ideas: ~ They did a long-term study of 240 male offenders, most of whom had been committed to psychiatric hospital ~ They studied the criminal personality and investigated offender's thinking patterns in order to prevent criminal behaviour. This was a longitudinal study over 14 years using interviews ~ They has been found guilty of a crime but had used the defence of insanity and they also interviewed convicted prisoners

Question 44

What did Yochelson and Samenow say about thinking errors and criminals?

Answer 44

Thinking errors of criminals according to Yochelson and Samenow (1976): - Lying - Secretiveness - Need for power - Need for control - Super-optimism - Failure to understand other's positions - Lack of trust - Uniquences (feeling they are special) - Victim stance (blaming others and seeing themselves as the victim)

Question 45

Strengths of Criminal Personality Theory

Answer 45

- The theory highlights the importance of considering individual differences and psychological factors in explaining criminality, moving beyond simplistic explanations based solely on environmental influences - By focusing on underlying personality factors, the theory has informed potential avenues for intervention and the treatment that target the root causes of criminal behaviour, for example CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy)

Question 46

Limitations of Criminal Personality Theory

Answer 46

- Some critics argue that Yochelson and Samenow's theory lacks robust empirical support, as it relies heavily on clinical observations rather than systemic controlled research - The theory may overlook essential interactions in shaping criminal behaviour, potentially neglecting the broader social context - While the theory provides insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying criminality, it may have limited predictive power in identifying who will engage in criminal behaviour and under what circumstances

Question 47

What did Kohlberg think about right and wrong?

Answer 47

Kohlberg's moral development theory provides insights into how individuals progress though distinct stages of moral reasoning, each of which in turn influences their decision-making and behaviour. In the context of criminality, Kohlberg's theory suggests that criminal behaviour may stem from moral development deficiencies, i.e. remaining at lower stages

Question 48

What is the difference between adults and children according to Kohlberg?

Answer 48

- Children define right and wrong in simple terms of what brings punishment or rewards - Adults understand that right and wrong involves moral principles and values

Question 49

What does Kohlberg’s theory suggest about criminals?

Answer 49

According to Kohlberg, individuals advance though six stages of moral development categorised into three levels: pre-convectional, convectional and post-convectional. At the pre-conventional level , individuals make decisions based on self-interest and avoiding punishment. In criminal context, individuals may engage in illegal activities to fulfill personal desires or to avoid negative consequences without considering the moral implications. At the conventional level, individuals adhere to societal norms and rules to maintain social order and gain approval. However, if these norms condone or justify criminal behaviour within certain groups or subcultures, individuals may engage in illegal activities to gain acceptance or respect within those contexts. In contrast, individuals at the post-conventional level develop a personal moral code base on abstract principles of justice and human rights. They critically evaluate societal norms and laws, recognizing that some laws may be unjust and therefore may choose to engage in civil disobedience or activism rather than criminal behaviour. From a criminological perspective, individuals who remain at the pre-conventional or conventional levels may be more susceptible to engaging in criminal behaviour, as their moral reasoning is primarily focused on self-interest or societal approval rather than ethical principles.

Question 50

What is cognitive behavioural therapy?

Answer 50

Focuses on identifying and modifying the thought patterns and behaviors that contribute to criminal behavior, aiming to reduce recidivism and improve overall social functioning.

Question 51

Strengths of Moral Development

Answer 51

- Kohlberg's moral development provides a framework for understanding how individuals' moral reasoning varies. - The theory emphasizes that moral development is a dynamic process that unfolds over time, acknowledging that individuals progress through distinct stages at different rates - Secondary research suggests that individuals at higher stages of moral development are less likely to engage in criminal behaviour, indicating the strong predictive value of Kohlberg's theory

Question 52

Limitations of Moral Development

Answer 52

- The theory assumes a universal trajectory of moral development, overlooking individual differences in personality, cognitive abilities, and life experiences that may influence moral reasoning - The theory primarily emphasises cognitive processes in moral reasoning, overlooking the role of emotions and situational factors in influencing behaviours.