Crime and Deviance Flashcards
What is value consensus
The shared norms and values of society that enable us to co-operate together
What are the two key mechanisms according to functionalists that enable us to achieve solidarity
Socialisation
Social control
What is socialisation
Instils a shared culture into its members. This ensures individuals internalise the same norms and values
What is social control
Mechanisms include rewards for conforming and punishment for deviance. This helps ensue that individuals behave in the way society expects
What is anomie in terms of crime
Too much crime could be argued to be disruptive to society and could result in social breakdown
What are the two reasons that Durkheim gives for crime being a positive thing
Boundary maintenance
Adaption and change
What is boundary maintenance
Boundaries that are maintained in society-reinforces what’s right and wrong, so they can reinforce social solidarity
What is adaption and change
Crimes tell law enforcements what needs to change
What are the other functions of crime
Prostitution and pornography can be beneficial
What are the benefits of prostitution and pornography
Safety value - sometimes committing personal crime is the only way to relieve personal tension without causing harm to wider society
Which theorists would have a problem with pornography and prostitution being beneficial
Albert cohen and Kai erikson
What does Albert cohen say about deviancy
Deviance can be a key indicator that an institution is not functioning properly
What does Kai erikson say
If crime and deviance perform positive functions then perhaps society is organised in such a way so as to promote deviance
What is the purpose of the maintenance of crime and deviance
From a functionalist perspective it offers people a way to cope with the strains of society, it therefore can have hidden and latent functions
What are 2 criticisms to the functions of crime
Functionalists explain the existence of crime but do not explain why it exists in the first place
Crime doesn’t always promote solidarity. It may have the opposite effect, leading people to become more isolated
What is strain theory
People engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means
What elements did Merton combine to create his strain theory
Structural factors
Cultural factors
What is the American dream
Having the stereotypical life, car, house and nuclear family
What are the 5 types of adaptations to strain
- Conformity - individuals accept goals
- Innovation - accept goals, use illegitimate means (fraud)
- Ritualism - give up on trying to achieve goals
- Retreatism - reject both goals and become dropouts
- Rebellion - reject societies goals and means and replace them with new ones
What are the strengths of merton
- Shows how both normal and deviant behaviour can arise from the same mainstream goal
- Lower class crime rates are higher, because they have least opportunity to obtain wealth legitimately
What are the criticisms of merton
- He takes statistics at face value, these overrepresent working class crime
- It assumes there is value consensus and that everyone strives for money success and ignores the fact that many may not share that goal
What is a subcultural strain theory
See deviance as the product of a delinquent subculture with different values from those of mainstream society
How does cohen criticise Merton’s strain theory
- Merton sees deviance as an individual response to strain ignoring that a lot of deviance is committed by groups, especially amongst the young
Who looked at status frustration
Albert Cohen
What is status frustration
A sense of personal failure or inadequacy
What did Cloward and Ohlin find about illegitimate opportunity structures
W/c youths are denied legitimate opportunities to achieve money success, so their deviance arises
What 3 types of of deviant subcultures did Cloward and Ohlin find
- Criminal subcultures - provide youths with an apprenticeship for a career in utilitarian crime
- Conflict subcultures - high levels of social disorganisation this prevents stable professional criminal networks developing
- Retreatist subcultures - not everyone who wants to become a professional criminal succeeds just as not everyone gets a good job
What is the south and the drug trade
South argues that cloward and ohlin draw the boundaries too sharply between the different types of subcultures.
He looked at the drug trade and found it is most often a mixture of ‘disorganised’ crime along side more professional ‘mafia’ style
What are some recent strain theories
Young people may pursue a variety of goals other than money success, this can include popularity with peers
What is an institutional anomie theory
Messner and Rosenfeld like merton use the american dream for the basis of their theory
They make the point that the obsession with individual monetary success and the ‘winner takes all mentality’ pushes people more towards crime
What is different about labelling theory
Labelling theory sees deviant identities as partly created by such interactions with control agents
What do functionalists believe about labelling
They are ‘problem takers’ and they take for granted the fact that official statistics give a representation of the real patterns of crime and who commits it
what do interactionists say for labelling
Labelling theory focused on the reaction to and the definition of deviance rather than the cause
What are moral entrepreneurs
People who have power in society
What is a moral crusade
The reason for a rule or law to be made
What are Beckers two effects of a new law
- The creation of a new group of outsiders - outlaws or deviants who break the new rule
- The creation or expansion of a social control agency e.g police etc
What does Platt say about juvenile delinquency
Was originally created as a result of a campaign by victorian moral entrepreneurs aimed at protecting young people at risk
Who gets labelled
Black and EM young males are 9x more likely to be stopped and searched by the police
What are the 3 factors that depend on whether someone is arrested, charged and convicted
- Their interactions with agencies of social control
- Their appearance, background and biography
- The situation and circumstances of the offence
What did Piliavin and briar find
That police decisions to arrest a youth is based on mainly physical cues such as dress and manners
What did Cicourel find
Police officers typifications led them to concentrate on certain types of offenders. This results in law enforcement showing class bias and led to police officers working more around working class areas
What does typifications mean
Common sense theories of what the typical delinquent is like
What is Cicourel’s commonsense theory
Juvenile delinquency was caused by broken homes, poverty and poor parenting
What does Cicourel say about official statistics
They shouldn’t be used as a resource as they don’t represent facts about crime - they should be used as a topic for sociologists to investigate the processes that created them
What are the two types of effects of labelling and who found them out
Lemert
- primary deviance
- secondary deviance
What is primary deviance
Its not publicly labelled and these acts have very little significance for the individuals status
What is secondary deviance
Where an individual is publicly labelled as a criminal, this will result in the individual being stigmatised and excluded from normal society
What did Becker find about the master status
Can provoke a crisis for the individuals self concept and one way to resolve it is to internalise the deviant label, which leads to a SFP
What more does Lemert say about secondary deviance
It can result in a deviant career as the individual may be forced into a deviant subculture
What did Jock Young find about drug use in north london
- young studied hippie marijuana users in notting hill
- labelling by the control culture, led the hippies seeing themselves as outsiders
- they retreated into deviant subcultures
- their subcultures were easily identified by dress and drug use
- this prompted more attention from police creating secondary deviance
What is deviance amplification
A term used to describe a process in which the attempt to control deviance leads to an increase in the level of deviance
What did Stan cohen find about folk devils and moral panics
- ‘mods and rockers’
- the study illustrates the deviancy amplification spiral in which societal reaction to an initial deviant act leads to further deviance
- the press exaggerated the events and created a moral panic
What are the key differences with functionalism
Lemert makes the point that functionalist theories beliee deviance leads to social control whereas labelling theorists argue that social control leads to deviance
What is the dark figure of crime
Is about unlabelled, unrecorded crime that is ignored by the public and police
What did Triplett find about young offenders
There’s an increase tendency to see young offenders as evil and to be less tolerant of minor deviance
What are the two types of shaming that Braithwaite found
- disintergrative shaming
- reintergrative shaming
What is disintergrative shaming
Where both the crime and the individual label is labelled as bad
What is reintergrative shaming
Where just the act is labelled but the social actor is not
What are interactionists particularly interested in
Mental illness and suicide which are widely regarded as deviant
Who studied suicide
Durkheim
Who disagrees with Durkheims study of suicide
Interactionists, instead they rely on official statistics as they argue we must study meanings for those who chose to kill themselves
What did Douglas find about suicide
-Looked at how coroners label death as suicide
-He found the decision made about the death is influenced by many social factors (friends,family etc)
What measures did Douglas find that should be taken for a death
Douglas argues we must use qualitative methods to get behind the labels coroners attach to deaths and discover the true meaning
What did Atkinson say about official statistics
OS are just a record of the labels that coroners attach, however he argues we can never properly know the meanings individuals give to their suicides
What AO3 goes with Atkinson’s study
But if all we have is interpretations rather than real facts then Atkinson’s theory is no more than an interpretation
What did Lemert find when he studied paranoia
Not everyone fits into groups easily, as a result of this primary deviance occurs and people begin to exclude the individual as being odd, this starts the secondary deviancy, which can lead to them becoming labelled negatively
What is institutionalisation and what did Goffman say about it
He studied asylum showing the effects of being admitted to a total institution
On admission, the patient undergoes a mortification of the self where their identity is lost and replaced by a new on ‘inmate’
What are 3 evaluation points for topic 2
- determinism (once someone is labelled, a deviant career is inevitable)
- assumes offenders are passive victims of labelling
- it tends to focus on less serious crime such as drug-taking
What does Miller say about working class crime
Working class have their own subcultural values which clash with the mainstream
What does Merton’s strain theory say about working class crime
Lower classes are more likely to feel the strain and pursue illegitimate opportunities because they are fed societies cultural goals of money
What does Cohen’s subcultural theories say about working class crime
Working class are culturally deprived and at the bottom of the status hierarchy and as such feel status frustration
What does Cloward and Ohlin’s subcultural theories say about working class crime
Use the concept of illegitimate opportunity structures to explain why a range of different crimes are more prevalent within the working class
What ways does the labelling theory criticise working class crime
Other theories are problem takers and assume that the stats are correct
Labelling theories are problem makers, they challenged OS and seek to investigate
What are the marxists 3 main elements of their view of crime
- criminogenic capitalism
- the state and law making
- ideological functions of crime and law
What does criminogenic mean
It is the marxist idea that capitalism by its very nature causes crime
What are the 3 reasons that the capitalist system is particularly damaging
- poverty (may mean that crime is the only way the w/c can survive)
- consumer goods (crime may be the only way they can contain consumer goods-leads to utilitarian crime)
- alienation (results in a lack of control over their lives which can lead to aggression-resulting in non-utilitarian crime)
What does marxists say about the law
They take the view that the law and agencies of social control such as the police serves only the interests of the ruling class
What does Snider say about the state and law making
Argues that it is still the case that the capitalist state is still always reluctant to pass laws that regulate businesses and threaten their profitability
What is selective enforcement
The working class and ethnic minorities are criminalised, but the criminal justice system tends to ignore the crimes of the powerful
What does Reiman say about selective enforcement
The criminal justice system has a tendency to focus on ‘street crime’, they are typically committed by the lower classes. Yet crimes committed by the higher classes, such as tax evasion tend to be ignored
How does the law, crime and criminals perform an ideological function for capitalism
Laws are occasionally passed that appear to be for the benefit of the subject class rather than the ruling class, for example health and safety laws
What does Pearce say about health and safety laws
They benefit the ruling class, for example keeping workers fit for work.
Evaluation points for the marxist views
- it ignores the relationship between crime and important non-class inequalities such as gender and ethnicity
- it is too deterministic - not all poor people commit crime despite the pressures of capitalism
What is the neo-marxist view
They are influenced by the ideas of marxist and ideas from interactionists who focus on the process of labelling
Neo-marxism points of agreement with marxism
- the state selectively enforces and makes laws that criminalise the w/c
- capitalism should be replaced by a classless society as this would reduce crime and even rid society of crime in the long term
Neo-marxism points of disagreement with marxism
Taylor et al argue marxism is too deterministic arguing workers are driven to commit crime out of economic necessity
What are two sources that make up the neo-marxist view
- traditional marxist ideas about unequal distribution of wealth and who has power
- ideas drawn from interactionists and labelling theory about the meaning of a deviant act and the effects of labelling
What are the 6 elements that complete the neo-marxist view
- the wider origins of the deviant act
- the immediate origins of the deviant act
- the act itself
- the immediate origins of societal reaction
- the wider origins of societal reaction
- the effects of labelling
Evaluation points for the neo-marxist view
Burke says that criminologist’s explanations are too general and idealistic so are of no use in terms of crime reduction strategies
What do Marxists say about crimes of the powerful
They say that crimes committed by the higher-classes, are less likely than working-class people to be prosecuted
What is white collar crime
A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation
What is corporate crime
An illegal act or omission that i the result of deliberate or culpable negligence by a legitimate business organisation that is intended to benefit the business
What does Tombs say about the scale and types of corporate crimes
Corporate crime has enormous costs; physical(deaths), environmental(pollution) and economic
Corporate crimes include…
- financial crimes - tax evasion
- crimes against consumers - false labelling
- crimes against employees
- crimes against the environment
- state-corporate crime
What are some reasons for crime being committed by the powerful become invisible
- the media - limited coverage
- crimes are often complex - law enforcements are often understaffed and under resourced
What is the strain theory explanations of corporate crimes
Box says that if employers don’t gain enough profit themselves, so they employ illegal means
What is the marxism explanation of corporate crimes
Box argues that capitalism has created a mystication - idea that corporate crime is less widespread and harmful than w/c crime
What is the differential association explanation of corporate crimes
Sutherland sees crime as behaviour learned in a social context, this links to two concepts ;
- deviant subcultures - employees face problems of achieving corporate goals and may adopt deviant means to do so and socialise new members into them
- techniques of neutralisation - individuals deviate more easily if they are able to justify their actions
What is the labelling theory explanations of corporate crime
Whether an act is criminal depends on if a label has been successfully applied
The powerful are able to negotiate easier to get rid of their negative labels
What are evaluation points for corporate crimes
- Both strain and marxism’s theories over-predict the amount of business crime
- law abiding could actually be more profitable
What are the realists arguments
- there has been a real increase in crime rates especially street crime, burglary and assault
- concerned about the widespread fear of crime and impacts on its victims
- other theories have failed to offer realistic solutions to the problem of crime and practical policies to solve it
What do right realists say about crime
- they see crime as a real and growing problem that destroys communities, undermines social cohesion and threatens society’s work ethic
What do the right realists say are the causes of crime
- biological differences - some people are more predisposed to commit crime than others. Personality traits such as aggression can increase people’s risk of offending
- socialization and the underclass - charles murray - crime is increasing due to an increase in the underclass who are defined by their deviant behavior
- rational choice theory - individuals have free will and the power of reason and so decision to commit crime is a choice based on a rational calculation
What is the routine activity theory
- a motivated offender
- a suitable target
- absence of a capable guardian
Evaluation points for right realists
- right realists ignores structural causes of crime
- the rational choice explanation may be able to explain to some extent of utilitarian crime but it doesn’t adequately explain non-utilitarian crime such as violence
- overstates the biological element - lily et al found that IQ differences account for less than 3% differences in offending
What accusations do left realists make to other sociologists
- traditional marxists - focus too much on crimes of the powerful neglecting w/c crime and its effects
- neo-marxists - romanticise w/c criminals as stealing from the rich to give to the poor as an act of political resistance to capitalism
- labeling theorists - see the w/c as victims of discriminatory labeling by social control agents neglecting the w/c people who are victims of these offenders
What does aetiological crisis mean
- there has been a crisis in explanation for the real increase in crime since the 1950’s
What does jock young say in aetiological crisis
- critical criminology tends to argue the increase in crime is the result of an increase in reporting or an increased tendency to label the poor
What are the causes of crime according to left realists
- relative deprivation
- subculture
- marginalisation
What is relative deprivation
- refers to how deprived a person feels in relation to others
- it is a paradox in modern society in that we are more prosperous but we are also crime ridden than in the past
- when it is combined with individualism than crime rates start to rise
What is a subculture
- a groups collective response to the mainstream goals of society such as consumerism
- Pryce - number of subcultures responses amongst african caribbean community in bristol such as hustlers
What is marginalisation
- a group that lacks clear goals and organizations to represent their interests
- they are unemployed youths who don’t belong to any organization and so having no representation either through employment or policies
What is said about late modernity exclusion and crime
- Young says : instability and insecurity and exclusion have made crime worse, we now have a greater inequality between rich and poor in a society that encourages individualism which increases sources of relative deprivation
What does Young say about second aetiological crisis
- crime is no longer a threat, however it is a social construct, it may still be seen as a problem, most people believe crime rate is increasing.
- a rise of ‘anti-social behaviour’ due to a focus by policy which has led to ‘defining deviance up’
What are the left realists solutions of crime
- policing and control
- tackling structural causes
What is policing and control
- public must become more involved in determining police priorities and the style of policing
- relations between public and police in inner cities are poor so the police can’t rely on public information in these areas to tackle crime
What is tackling structural causes
- argues we must deal with the unequal structure of society dealing with inequality of opportunity, tackling discrimination, provide decent jobs and improve housing and community facilities
- we must also become more tolerant of difference and avoid stereotyping whole swathes of people as criminal
What are some statistics with gender and crime
- 4 out of 5 criminals are men
- by the age of 40, 9% of females had a criminal conviction compared with 32% of males
What is the chivalry thesis
- attempts to offer an explanation as to why women appear less in the crime statistics than men and it relates to their treatment by the police and the CJS
What does pollack say about the chivalry thesis
- men have a protective attitude towards women and as a direct result male police officers are less likely to arrest them and juries are less inclined to convict them
What does flood say about the chivalry thesis
- women are also more likely to be cautioned than men rather than charged for the offence
Some evidence against chivalry thesis
- women commit less serious crimes and are therefore less likely to receive harsh sentences
- women are more likely to show remorse - more likely to receive a caution
- ignores that many male crimes do not get reported
What is the feminist view of the chivalry thesis
- heidensohn - argues that women are punished for deviating gender norms
- double standards - courts punish girls and not boys for promiscuity
Who looks at the functionalists sex role theory and what do they say
parson
- traces difference in crime and deviance to the gender roles in the conventional nuclear family
What is the explanation for parsons functionalist sex role theory
- women stay at home, meaning girls have a positive role model
- however boys lack that role model due to fathers going out to work, can lead to more aggression within boys, which can lead to an increase in crime
What does Heidensohn say about the patriarchal control theory
- in a patriarchal society, women are subject to control thereby reducing their opportunities to offend
What are the 3 types of control that Heidensohn found
Control at;
- home
- workplace
- public
What is said about control at home
- domestic roles imposes serious restrictions on women and their time
- it confines them to the house thereby reducing opportunities to offend
What is said about control in public
- islington survey found that 54% of women asked avoided going out after dark for fear of being victims of men
What is said about control at work
- women experience high levels of male control and sexual harassment which serves to keep them in their place
What does carlen say about class and gender deals
- he conducted unstructured interviews with 39 15-46 year old w/c women who had a range of convictions
- 20 of the participants were in custody at the time
- woman had failed the class deal, failed at earning a decent living and this left them feeling powerless
What is the class deal
- women who work are offered material rewards with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities therefore they avoid criminality
What is the gender deal
- patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life if they conform to the norms of a conventional domestic gender role
Many women had not had the opportunity to make the gender deal because of:
- physical and sexual abuse ;subject to domestic violence
- half had spent time in care
- left care and found themselves homeless, unemployed and poor
Evaluation of control theory, sex role theory and class and gender deals
- they are too deterministic as they suggest that women are fundamentally shaped by patriarchy
What is the liberation thesis
- alder argues - women are increasingly less subject to patriarchal social forces and as opportunities become more equal the female crime rate will increase
What does Alder mean when she refers to changes in the structure of society
- as patriarchal controls and discrimination lessen there are more opportunities in work and education
- social policy, social expectations etc
Evaluation points of the liberation thesis
- female crime rate began to rise in 1950
- female offenders tend to be w/c which means that m/c women who have benefitted the most from gender equality measures are not liberated in their risk taking
What has the O.S found about females and violent crimes
- there has been a rise in female violent crimes
- this supports alders liberation thesis
What is said about the criminalisation of females
- net widening - increase in statistics reflect the justice system ‘widening the net’ - arresting and prosecuting females for less serious forms of violence than before
What is said about moral panics and girls
- Sharpe found judges and police officers were influenced by the stereotypes of ‘ladettes’ and many believed it was getting worse
What are the statistics found with homicide victims
- 70% are male. Females are more likely to know their killer 60% it is a partner
What is said about victims of violence
- women are most likely victimised by an acquaintance
- 10x more women have reported being sexually assaulted
- more women are victims of intimate violence e.g stalking
What did lea and young find about women and victims
- it’s likely that women do not always report all violence during victim surveys.
What did Messerschmidt argue
- masculinity is a social construct or ‘accomplishment’ that men have to constantly work at constructing and presenting to others. He argues that it is easier for some men to achieve societies expected goals of masculinity
What is hegemonic masculinity
- the idea that a society holds an idea of what a real man is, it is the dominant form that most men wish to accomplish
Who has subordinated masculinity
- lower class
- ethnic minorities
What is subordinated masculinity
- makes who lack the resources to achieve hegemonic masculinity and gay men where there is no desire to achieve the idea of normative masculinity
What type of rule breaking do white middle class youths do
- have to subordinate themselves to teachers to achieve m/c status which leads to accommodating masculinity in school
- as a result, outside masculinity takes an oppositional form e.g drinking, pranks etc
What type of rule breaking do white working class youths do
- have less chance of achieving educational success so their masculinity is oppositional both in and out of school
- constructed around sexist attitudes and being tough etc
What type of rule breaking do black lower class youths do
- may have few expectations of a reasonable job and may use gang members and violence to express their masculinity
Evaluation points of messerschmidt
- fails to explain why all men do not use crime to achieve masculinity
- he uses the concept to explain virtually all crimes from joy riding to embezzlement
What did Winlow find about postmodernity, masculinity and crime
- studied live of bouncers in sunderland
- this area has had a major decline in traditional male jobs
- some w/c young men find these opportunities provided a combination of legal employment, criminal opportunities and expressing their masculinity
What does Winlow say which agrees with coward and ohlins subcultures
- sunderland has always been in a conflict subculture
- a sense of a professional criminal subculture meant there was little opportunity for a career in organised crime
What is said about bodily capital
- to maintain reputation and employability men use their bodily capital
- e.g bouncers developing their physical assets by body building
What are some statistics with ethnicity and crime
- black people were 2.4x more likely to be arrested than white people
- arrests for mixed ethnicity were 1.3x more higher than white people
What is a victim survey
- ask individuals what crimes they have committed been victims of
What can we learn from the data collected via victim surveys
- gain information about ethnicity and offending
- a great deal of crime in INTRA-ETHNIC
What are the limitations of victim surveys
- rely on memory
- they exclude under 10s
- they only cover personal crimes excluding corporate crimes
What is a self-report study
- asks individuals to disclose their own violent behaviour and it’s usually anonymous
What is a statistic found with self-report studies
- GRAHAM & BOWLING found that offending rates for black and white respondents were very similar 43 and 44% respectively
What stereotypes do these findings challenge within self-report studies
- challenge the stereotype that black people are more likely than white to offend
What are some policing statistics
- STOP AND SEARCH - black people are 7x more likely to be stopped and searched than whites
- TASERS - chance of being involved in a taser incident: asian people - 3 in 10,000 and white people - 6 in 10,000 and black people - 18 in 10,000
What is said about ethnicity and arrest and cautions
- police officers appear to arrest and charge some black and asian people without sufficient evidence
What are some statistics found with ethnicity and arrest and cautions
- in 2014/15 the arrest rates for blacks was 3x the rate for whites and once arrested black and asian people were less likely to receive a caution
What is an explanation for more black people being arrested compared to white people
- ethnic minorities are less likely to admit the offence-due to a mistrust of the police - meaning they can’t be cautioned
What is said about ethnicity and prosecution and trials
- studies suggest the CPS are more likely to drop cases against ethnic minorities
-ethnic minorities are more likely to elect for a trial before a jury
Why do ethnic minorities opt for a jury
- perhaps due to the mistrust of a magistrates impartially - rather take a jury of their peers
- however crown courts can impose harsher sentences if found guilty
What is said about ethnicity and conviction and sentencing and prison
- black people are 4x more likely to be in prison than white people
- black and asian offenders are more likely to be serving longer sentences
- in 2014 over a 1/4 of the male prison population were of ethnic minority
Left realists such as Lea and Young say what about explaining differences in offending
- they acknowledge that police racism may have some part to play.
- given that the offending rates are lower for the asian community, this would suggest particular racism
What are the 3 factors that left realists say produce crime
- relative deprivation
- subcultures
- marginalisation
AO3 criticisms of the left realist view
- black males were seen to be dangerous, however after 9/11 the stereotypes changed to asian men being too dangerous
- showing a rise in the criminality for this group
What is the neo-marxist view
- they don’t accept the validity of the O.S
- they view crime as a resistance against capitalism rather than the result of subcultural values
Who looks at the myth of black criminality
- Gilroy
What does gilroy say about the myth of black criminality
- this idea is created by stereotypes of African, Caribbeans and Asians
- the black community are no more criminal than that of any other group but they are the victim of racial stereotypes
What is a criticism of the myth of black criminality view
- asian crime rates are similar to or lower than whites. if GILROY was right, then the police are only racist towards black people, which seems unlikely
Who looked at policing the crisis
- Hall
What does hall say about policing the crisis
- the ruling class are normally able to control the w/c with consent, but in times of crisis this becomes increasingly difficult
- did acknowledge a level of criminality amongst the black community as a result of marginalisation
What is a criticism of policing the crisis
- left realists argue street crimes WAS increasing and so concerns of the wider community over the increase in mugging was justified
What does Fitzgerald say about neighbourhoods
- crime statistics were higher in poorer areas where deprived youths came into contact with affluent people
- black youths are more likely to live in those type of areas than white people
- shows ethnicity is not the specific cause
What do Sharp and Budd say about getting caught
- black offenders are more likely to commit crimes
- due to the fact they were more likely to commit robbery
- where they can be identified and have to be excluded from school etc
What does racist victimisation generally cover
- racist incidents
- racially or religiously aggravated offences
What is said about the extent and risk of victimisation
- the CSEW estimated over 89,000 racially motivated incidents happen in the same year
- most racist incidents were damage to property or verbal harassment
What is said about the responses to victimisation
- responses have ranged from situational crime prevention strategies such as fireproof doors and letterboxes to organised self-defence campaigns
