Counterfactual thinking Flashcards
mental simulations of possible outcomes that did not happen but can be imagined as having occurred =
counterfactual thoughts
when do counterfactual thoughts often occur?
when experiencing a negative outcome
what do counterfactuals do and why?
mentally stimulate a better alternative situation, because we are dissatisfied with reality
thinking about better possible outcomes ‘if only’ =
upwards counterfactual
thinking about the worst possible outcomes ‘at least’ =
downwards counterfactuals
what is the effect of upwards counterfactuals?
- highlight what could be done differently to achieve desired outcome
- functional
- foster behaviour change
what is the effect of downwards counterfactuals?
- provide immediate relief for self-threatening thoughts
2. shift attention to what worse outcome was avoided
how do counterfactuals have adaptive functions?
think about better realities so we can try and better ourselves
think about worse realities so we can feel better about ourselves
silver medalist made an ______ counterfactual and bronze medalist made a _______ counterfactual
upwards, downwards
model that looks at how counterfactuals make us feel =
self motive model of counterfactual thinking (Sanna et al, 2001)
upward = self ______ function = increased _____ affect
improvement, negative
downward = self _________ function = increased ______ affect
enhancement, positive
heightens success-enhancing intentions and behaviours = which counterfactual?
upwards
restores positive sense of self in response to negative events = which counterfactual?
downwards
which was one of the first models of counterfactual thinking that suggested they have affects on our emotions and behaviours?
self motive model of counterfactual thinking
what is the more recent model of counterfactual thinking?
The functional theory of counterfactual thinking (Epstude & Roese, 2008)
if the primary function of counterfactuals is problem solving then counterfactual thinking should be activated by _______
problems (+ should have the effect go evoking behaviours to correct those problems)
which model assumes that successful behaviour regulation is the only ‘functional’ outcome of counterfactual thinking?
the functional theory of counterfactual thinking
upwards counterfactuals are only considered functional when?
there is a likelihood that there will be an opportunity to change future behaviour
the behaviour targeted and changed is under the person’s control
when is a counterfactual thought uncontrollable?
when its what other people do that you can’t control or change in the future
uncontrollable =
dysfunctional
controllable =
functional
pathway that focuses on the specific thing in the circumstance so you change the specific behaviour to get the specific outcome next time =
content specific pathway
the content specific pathway helps you form ______
intentions (highlights the link between actions and outcomes)
does Gollwitzer say that specific intentions or more general behavioural intentions are easier to implement?
specific intentions
what are the 4 components of the content specific pathway?
problem > upward counterfactual > intention > behaviour
pathway where making a counterfactual in a specific situation can have benefits in other situations that are not related to the one you are in =
content neutral pathway
the content neutral pathway has a more _____ effect on behaviour outcomes
general
mindset to make a particular type of counterfactual to help solve a problem in the future =
counterfactual mindsets
counterfactuals involve a ______ between a factual and hypothetical outcome similar to social comparisons
comparison
what is key in assimilation and contrast of CT?
attentional focus
upward assimilation counterfactuals =
hope, inspiration
upward contrast counterfactuals =
disappointment, sadness
downward assimilation counterfactuals =
fear, worry
downward contrast counterfactuals =
relief, satisfaction
there are different ______ ________ depending whether you contact or assimilate with the counterfactual target
affective consequences
which type of counterfactual thought is going to give the best motivation to do better next time?
downward assimilation (assimilating makes it more real and the fear and worry makes it more motivating to try and avoid in the future)
what does research suggest about the upward assimilation CT of feeling hope?
can lead to fantasying too much which takes away motivation
contrasting is ____ motivating that assimilating and downwards is _____ motivating than upwards
less, more
why are upwards counterfactuals functional and downward counterfactuals aren’t?
upwards = change your behaviour, downwards = only change your mood
what type of downwards counterfactual may be shown to be functional and why?
downward assimilative counterfactuals
downward counterfactuals that CONTRAST provide comfort by contrasting with the worst alternative but denies there is room for improvement so doesn’t provide motivation to change = what effect?
Pangloss effect
idea of being content > no motivation as no dissatisfaction =
pangloss effect
downwards counterfactuals that ASSIMILATE give a negative affect where they focus on the real possibility that something worse could go happened. provides motivation to change behaviour = what effect?
the wake up call
what were the results from McMullen & Markman’s study?
contrast condition (focusing on positive info) ppts experienced a positive affect but less motivated to improve their grade, assimilate condition (focus on negative info) ppts experienced a negative affect but more motivated
thinking about things you could of additionally done to change the outcome =
additive
something you could of taken away to change the outcome =
subtractive
give examples of additive counterfactuals
given yourself more time to get the train, taken an umbrella out so you were less cold and wet
give examples of subtractive counterfactuals
not texting before going to get the train, if only it wasn’t raining then you wouldn’t be so cold and wet
are additive or subtractive counterfactuals more likely to be remembered in similar future instances?
additive (more likely for behaviour change)
counterfactuals can focus on _____ or ______
action or inaction
when are additive counterfactuals more frequently made?
when an event involves an unexpected task failure
facilitates creative thinking and a discovery mindset to solve problems =
additive
when are subtractive counterfactuals more frequently made?
when an event involves an expected success
facilities analytic thinking and problem solving (e.g. math problems) =
subtractive
how are affective contrast of downward counterfactuals functional?
- protect from self threatening thoughts (maintain healthy mental state)
- restore mood (emotion regulation function)
priority of short term mood regulation is central to understanding ________
procrastination
what were the results from Sirosis (2004) study on procrastination and counterfactual thinking?
procrastinators make more downwards CFTs and fewer upward CFTs in response to anxiety overall (both anixety provoking events and delay specific anxiety), supports mood repair hypothesis, showed pangloss effect, lack of motivation to change behaviour, delayed health behaviours
