Coordination & Control Flashcards
what are the types of coordination?
A coordinated action has ________ components.
aka chemical coordination?
nervous system has ______ functions?
Nervous coordination brought about by nervous system
Chemical coordination brought about by endocrine system
5
endocrine glands/system
3 sensory input, integration, motor output
Animals have both the nervous and chemical coordination systems in their bodies while plants and
other organisms have only chemical coordination
Q: Define a stimulus.
Q: Give examples of stimuli.
stimulus is recieved by?
A: any change in the environment (external or internal) that can provoke a response in an organism.
A: touch, light, heat, cold, pressure, sound waves, presence of chemicals, and microbial infections.
A: receptors
Q: What are receptors?
Q: what is sensory input?
Q: What are stimuli detected by in the body?
A: organs, tissues, or cells specifically built to detect particular types of stimuli.
A: conduction of signals from sensory receptors to processing centre the CNS.
A: Stimuli are detected by special organs, tissues, or cells in the body.
what are coordinators?
Q: Which parts of the body act as coordinators in nervous coordination?
Q: What role do endocrine glands play in the body?
Q: How do endocrine glands receive & send messages?
the organs that receive information from receptors & send messages to particular organs for proper action.
A: The brain and spinal cord
A: act as coordinators in chemical coordina.
A: They receive information in the form of various chemicals & send messages by secreting particular hormones into the blood.
what are effectors?
In nervous coordination, _______ carry messages from ___________ to ___________, which act as effectors.
In chemical coordination, ______ carry messages from coordinators (_______) to ____________, which act as effectors
the parts of body which receive messages from coordinators and produce particular responses.
neurons
coordinators brain & spinal cord
muscles & glands
particular hormones
endocrine glands
particular target tissues
Give an example of a response produced by nervous coordination
Give an example of a response produced by chemical coordination.
Q: How do the durations of responses in nervous coordination compare to those in chemical coordination?
pulling our hand away from something hot & the movement of the sunflower towards light.
Nervous coordination usually produces immediate but short-living responses, while chemical coordination produces slow but long-living responses.
make a diagram of a coordinated action.
pg 32
nervous system parts? what do they compromise of?
what are the made of
2 main CNS PNS
CNS comprises of coordinators i.e. brain & spinal cord
while PNS consists of nerves that arise from CNS and spread in different parts of body.
All these components are made of neurons.
what are neurons?
the portion of neuron most resembling other cells?
________ conduct impulses toward cell body and _________ conduct impulses away from cell body
Neurons are specialized cells that are able to conduct nerve impulses from receptors to coordinators and from coordinators to effectors.
cell body has nucleus and cytoplasm
Dendrites
axons
neurons are of _____ types on the basis of _______.
name them.
structure?
3 function & structure
Sensory neurons have 1 dendrite & 1 axon.
They have many dendrites & axons.
They have many dendrites but only 1 axon (motor neuron)
what is saltatory impulses?
what part of neuron is involved or causes it?
the process where nerve impulses jump from one node of Ranvier to the next along a myelinated axon, significantly increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission.
myelin sheath & nodes of ranvier
Q: How does the myelin sheath affect nerve impulse conduction?
A: The myelin sheath acts as an insulator, so the membrane coated with this sheath does not conduct nerve impulses. Instead, impulses “jump” from node to node, a process called saltatory conduction, which increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission.
Q: What are Schwann cells? function?
A: special neuroglial cells located at regular intervals along axons that secrete a fatty layer called the myelin sheath over some neurons.
in simple terms cells of myelin sheath
what is a nerve? types?
nodes of ranvier?
Nerves are bundles of axons that are enveloped by a covering made of lipid that conduct electrical impulses.
3 mixed nerves
small gaps b/w consec. Schwann cells
function of the type of neurons?
- Sensory neurons conduct sensory information (nerve impulse) from receptors towards the CNS.
- Interneurons form brain & spinal cord. They receive information, interpret them and stimulate motor neurons
- Motor neurons carry information from interneurons to muscle or glands (effectors).
What do the meninges do?
what are ventricles?
Fluid within ventricles and central canal is called ___________. where is it?
They protect the brain & provide nutrients and oxygen to brain tissue through their capillaries.
brain contains hollow spaces that are continuous with the central canal of spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
b/w the inner & middle layer of meninges
what are meninges?
The brain contains fluid-filled _________ that are continuous with the _________ of spinal cord.
which part of the brain is folded? why?
brain & SC is covered by three protective membranes called meninges
ventricles
central canal
cerebral coretx to fit in the skull due to large S.A
where is thalamus located?
function?
name endocrine glands?
just below cerebrum
* It receives & modifies nearly all sensory impulses (except nose) before passing them to cerebrum.
* Thalamus is also involved in pain perception & consciousness.
* pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, and adrenal glands.
hypothalamus location?
size?
function?
lies above midbrain and just below thalamus. an almond
link nervous system & endocrine system as it controls the secretions of pituitary gland. It regulates feelings, body temp., appetite, water balance, blood pressure.
lobes function?
diabetes mellitus is caused by?
deficiency of insulin
Cerebral Cortex?
Grey Matter?
White Matter?
- The upper layer of the cerebral hemispheres consisting of grey matter.
- found in the cerebral cortex, containing cell bodies & non-myelinated axons.
- Located beneath the grey matter of the cerebral cortex, consisting of myelinated axons.
what is cerebrum? function?
it is divided into __________?
what creates the sensation of smell? function? describe the part?
the largest part of forebrain. It controls skeletal muscles, thinking, intelligence & emotions.
2 cerebral hemispheres.
The anterior parts of cerebral hemispheres are called olfactory bulbs which receive impulses from olfactory nerves & create the sensation of smell.
what is divided into lobes?
midbrain location?
what is the last part of the brain?
how are the 2 hemispheres connected?
Each cerebral hemisphere 4
between hindbrain & forebrain and connects the two. below cerebrum
medulla oblongata
by bundle of nerves called corpus callosum
midbrain function?
it receives sensory information & sends it to the appropriate part of forebrain.
also controls some auditory reflexes & posture.
hindbrain consist of? name them?
cerebellum location & function?
brain is divided into?
3 pons, cerebellum & medulla oblongata.
Cerebellum is behind medulla. It controls balance & muscle coordination.
3 fore hind & mid brain
medulla oblongata location?
function?
Medulla oblongata lies just above spinal cord.
1. controls involuntary body processes like breathing, heart rate & blood pressure.
2. controls many reflexes such as vomiting, coughing, sneezing etc.
3. Information that passes b/w spinal cord & the rest of brain pass through medulla.
pons location and function?
PNS is composed of _______.
what links body parts & brain? how?
Pons is present above medulla.
It assists medulla in controlling breathing.
It serves as a connection b/w cerebellum & spinal cord
nerves and ganglia
spinal cord
pg 35
What are the outer and central regions of the spinal cord made of?
________ protects the spinal cord?
spinal cord start from __________ & extends to __________.
spinal cord is covered by _________.
- The outer region of spinal cord is made of white matter (containing myelinated axons). The central region is butterfly shaped that surrounds the central canal. It is made of grey matter (containing neuron cell bodies).
- The vertebral column
- brain stem lower back
- meninges
how many pairs of spinal nerves? what type?
Spinal cord is the ________ of medulla oblongata.
The ________ connect the rest of brain to spinal cord. They are collectively referred to as brain stem.
31 pairs
These are “mixed” nerves because each contains axons of both sensory & motor neurons.
continuation
medulla oblongata, pons, & midbrain
describe one mixed spinal nerve?
what is ganglion?
At the point where a spinal nerve arises from spinal cord, there are two roots of spinal nerve.
Both roots unite and form one mixed spinal nerve.
* The dorsal root contains sensory axons & a ganglion where cell bodies are located.
* The ventral root contains axons of motor neurons
functions of spinal cord?
- It serves as a link between body parts and brain. Spinal cord transmits nerve impulses from body parts to brain & from brain to body parts.
- Spinal cord also acts as a coordinator, responsible for some simple reflexes.
Q: what is ganglia?
Q: why is it named cranial & spinal nerve?
Q: How many pairs of cranial & spinal nerves do humans have?
Q: What types of nerves are cranial & spinal nerves?
- the clusters of neuron cell bodies outside CNS. They are part of the PNS & carry nerve signals to & from the CNS.
- Nerves arise or lead to brain & spinal cord.
- 12 pairs and 31 pairs
- Some cranial nerves are sensory, some are motor and some are mixed.
all spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
what pathway do spinal nerves make?
what pathway do cranial nerves make?
The cranial and spinal nerves make 2 pathways i.e. sensory pathway (conducting impulses from receptors to CNS) & motor pathway (conducting impulses from CNS to effectors).
what is motor pathway?
motor pathway makes ____ system.
motor neuron always conduct impulses from?
conducts impulses from CNS to effectors.
2
CNS
SNS component?
function or responsible for?
Q: What is the ANS responsible for?
Q: What are the two main components of the autonomic nervous system?
It includes all of the motor neurons that conduct impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles.
responsible for conscious & voluntary actions.
responsible for activities that are not under conscious control, such as regulating heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.
the sympathetic system & the parasympathetic system.
Q: What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?
Q: What are some actions of the sympathetic nervous system during an emergency situation?
The SNS prepares the body to deal with emergency situations, often called the “fight or flight” response.
During an emergency situation, this system takes necessary actions. example; it
dilates pupils, accelerates heartbeat, increases breathing rate and inhibits digestion.
Q: What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Q: What actions does the parasympathetic nervous system take to normalize functions?
normalizes body functions after stress ends, promoting rest and digestion.
It causes pupils to contract, promotes digestion, and slows the rate of heartbeat and breathing.
The _________ control the conscious action or voluntary actions.
Q: How do involuntary actions differ from reflex actions?
what is reflex arc?
- higher centres of brain
- Involuntary actions are not under conscious control, whereas reflex actions are very quick involuntary responses produced by the CNS.
- The pathway followed by the nerve impulses for producing a reflex action
what is relfex action?
reflex arc consists of?
Sometimes, the involuntary response produced by the CNS is very quick. Such a response is called reflex action.
5
in fire example what acts as coordinator, what stimulates?
how our brain comes to know about it?
spinal cord acts as coordinator.
Heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in skin. A nerve impulse is generated which is carried by sensory neurons to the interneurons of spinal cord.
From interneurons, the impulse is passed to motor neurons, which carry it to the muscles of arm. As a result, the muscles contract to withdraw hand.
During it, other interneurons transmit nerve impulses up to brain so that the person becomes aware of pain and what happened.
what gives the eye its white color?
cornea function?
what gives the eye inner dark color? what does it contain?
what gives the eye its unique color?
behind what is what type of lens?
lens is attached to what muscle?
what is yellow spot?
sclera
refracts light rays
choroid blood vessels
iris
iris convex
ciliary muscles
the choroid modifies to form a muscular ring called the ____.
circular muscle contract to? radial muscles dilate to?
iris
to constrict the pupil, reducing light entry in bright conditions.
dilate the pupil, increasing light entry in dim conditions.
FMIGTN
- The lens is attached to the ______ of the eye via ___________.
- Ciliary muscles make the lens thick or thin due to which its focal length changes. how?
- ciliary muscles
- a ring of suspensory ligament.
- When you are looking at a distant object, the ciliary muscles are in a relaxed position & the lens is made thin so that image is formed on the retina. To look at something closer to the eye, these muscles make the lens thicker. This makes its focal length shorter & the image is again formed on the retina instead of forming at a point beyond it
- which inner layer of the eye is sensory?
- blind spot aka why is it called?
- what divides what into chambers?
- what fluid is between what?
- retina
- optic disc cz no rods or cones
- The iris divides the cavity of the eye into two chambers.
- aqueous humour is the clear fluid in the anterior chamber.(b/w the cornea & the iris)
- The vitreous humour is the jelly-like fluid in the posterior chamber.b/w the iris & the retina
- rods and cones contain?
- The body synthesizes _______ from vitamin A.
- function of Vitreous Humour?
- what generate impulse and what carries it to the brain?
- function of fovea?
- Rods are sensitive to ______ light while cones are sensitive to ________ light
- The working of eye is affected by the ____________.
- pigment rhodopsin iodopsin
- rhodopsin
- helps maintain the shape of the eye & suspends the delicate lens.
- Rods and Cones optic nerve
- responsible for color vision & sharpness
- dim bright
- changes in the shape of eyeball
explain color blindness
There are 3 main types of cones, and each type has a specific iodopsin. Each type of cone recognizes one of the three primary colours, i.e., blue, green, & red. If any type of cone is not working well, it becomes difficult to recognize that colour. Such a person is also not able to distinguish different colours. This disease is called colour blindness, and it is a genetic problem.
why myopia and Hypermetropia happens?
where the image is formed
how can the problem be solved?
The elongation of eyeball results in myopia. Such person is not able to see distant objects clearly. The image of a distant object is formed in front of retina. This problem can be rectified by using concave lens.
It happens when eyeball shortens. Such person is not able to see near objects clearly. The image is formed behind retina. Convex lens is used to rectify this problem.
what is pinna made of? function?
what does auditory canal contain?
what is the smallest bone of the human body?
made of cartilage, helps to direct sound waves into the auditory canal.
has special glands in its walls that produce wax
Stapes
Q: What is the primary function of the wax produced by the glands in the auditory canal?
what link inner ear to middle ear?
The auditory canal ends in the ______. what is it?
A: protects the ear from small insects, germs, & dust.
round window
ear drum
a thin membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear.
what are ossicles?
what is Eustachian tube? function?
3 small bones, called middle ear ossicles, are present in a chain in middle ear. These movable bones include malleus, incus and stapes.
The middle ear communicates with the nasal cavity through the Eustachian tube. This tube regulates the air pressure on both sides of the eardrum. It connects middle ear to throat.
what seperates middle ear from inner ear? what is connected with it?
the inner ear consist of ? name in order
what part of ear contain sound rececptor cells? describe its structure?
Oval window stapes
3 parts
present within the middle duct of the cochlea inner ear
the cochlea is made of 3 ducts & wraps itself into a coiled tube.
- what part of the ear produce wax?
- what separates the middle ear from the inner ear?
- what regulates the air pressure on both sides of the eardrum?
- what separates the external ear from the middle ear.
- what maintain the temp. & dampness of the ________.
- what is made of ducts?
- what part of ear communicates with the nasal cavity?
- The auditory canal has special glands in its walls that produce wax
- oval window
- Eustachian tube
- ear drum
- wax & hairs auditory canal
- cochlea
- the middle ear communicates with the nasal cavity through the Eustachian tube
how do we hear?
what first produce vibrations?
how are receptor/sound cells stimulated? what stimulates it?
- The pinna of the external ear focuses and directs sound waves into auditory canal. The sound waves strike ear drum and produce vibrations in it.
- From ear drum, the vibrations strike middle ear and produce further vibrations in malleus, incus and then stapes.
- From stapes, the vibrations strike the oval window and then reach the fluid-filled middle duct of cochlea. The fluid of cochlea is moved and receptor cells are stimulated. The receptor cells generate a nerve impulse, which travels to brain and is interpreted as sound. (thorugh auditory nerve)
the nerve impulse travels through the auditory nerve
how ear maintain balance of the body? what part of ear? through what they reach which part of the brain?
- 3 Semicircular canals & vestibule help to maintain the balance of body.
- Semicircular canals contain sensory nerves which can detect rotational acc. of head.
- Vestibule can detect any changes in the position of body.
- The neurons coming from these two receptors reach cerebellum through the auditory nerve.
How does the endocrine system communicate with its effectors?
what is a hormone?
How do endocrine glands release their secretions?
How are hormones transported and where do they act?
- The endocrine system uses chemicals known as hormones to communicate with its effectors.
- a chemical messengars produced by endocrine glands that regulate and control
- Endocrine glands are ductless & release their secretions (hormones) directly into the bloodstream.
- Blood carries the hormones to target organs or tissues, upon which they act.
- Where is the pituitary gland located?
- the role of the pituitary gland’s trophic hormones?
- How many lobes does the pituitary gland have and what are they called?
- a pea-shaped gland attached to the hypothalamus of the brain.
- Many trophic hormones of the pituitary gland influence the secretions of other endocrine glands.
- The pituitary gland has two lobes: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe.
- What important hormone is produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, & what is its primary function?
- What condition results from diminished production of somatotrophin during the growing age?
- What condition results from excessive production of somatotrophin during the growing age?
- What condition results from excessive production of somatotrophin after the growing age?
- Somatotrophin (growth hormone) is produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It promotes the growth of the body.
- leads to dwarfism, characterized by a decreased rate of growth.
- leads to gigantism, characterized by being very tall and overweight.
- leads to acromegaly, where internal organs and body extremities grow large.
what hormones do anterior lobe of pituitary gland produce?
What is the primary function of (TSH)?
what else do the anterior lobe do?
remember there is a diff. b/w secrete and produce
It produces many hormones. One of its important hormones is somatotrophin (growth hormone) & TSH
to stimulate the thyroid gland to secrete its hormones.
The remaining hormones of anterior lobe influence gonads & also control adrenal glands.
thyroid-stimulating hormone
how many hormones does the posterior lobe of ________ secrete?
function?
what happen if we have low amount of water in body fluids?
stores & secretes 2 hormones oxytocin & vasopressin it doesn’t produce
These hormones are produced by
hypothalamus
ADH: increases the rate of reabsorption of water from nephrons.
pituitary gland secretes vasopressin and so more reabsorption of water occurs from nephrons into blood. In this way, body retains water and less amount of urine
is produced.
pituitary gland
what happens if body fluids have more than normal water?
there is a decline in the secretion of this hormone. If pituitary gland does not secrete this hormone in the required
amount, less water is reabsorbed from nephrons and there is excessive loss of water through urine. This condition is known as diabetes insipidus
vasopressin
function of oxytocin?
ADH?
name the largest endocrine gland in the human body?
what is the master gland? why?
_________ complement each other and regulate the level of calcium ions in the blood.
adrenaline aka?
- stimulates the contraction of uterus walls during birth. this hormone is necessary for the ejection of milk from breast
thyroid gland
The pituitary gland
Calcitonin & parathormone
epinephrine
antidiuretic hormone/ vasopressin
where is thyroid gland located?
what hormone does the thyroid gland produce? what does it require?
what is goitre?
What are the main functions of hormone t_____ in the body?
- It is present in neck region, below larynx
- calcitonin, thyroxin
- Iodine is required for the production of this hormone.
- lacks iodine in diet, thyroid gland cannot make its hormone. thyroid gland
enlarges. This disorder is called goitre. - Thyroxin regulates basic metabolism. It regulates process of growth especially…
calcitonin? function?
The thyroid gland produces another hormone called calcitonin.
It decreases the level of calcium ions in blood & promotes the absorption of calcium from blood into bones.
parathyroid glands? hormone? function?
parathormone has function opposite to the function of ________.
- These are four glands situated on the posterior side of thyroid gland. They produce a hormone known as parathormone.
- It balances the level of calcium ions and phosphate in blood.
- calcitonin
explain adrenal glands?
structure? hormone? function?
what is corticosteroids?
- 2 adrenal glands are situated above kidneys. Each adrenal gland consists of 2 parts.
- The outer part is cortex & the inner part is medulla.
- Adrenal medulla secretes a hormone called epinephrine or adrenaline and noradrenaline in response to stress.
- The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones called corticosteroids
- increases rate and intensity of heartbeat, BP, and blood flow to the limbs.
- such changes prepares our body to overcome emergency situations.
- nor adrenaline rasises BP & constricts…
Therefore, adrenaline is also termed as ‘emergency hormone
pancreas? hormone? which cells secrete which hormones? function?
- the ductless portion of pancreas contain groups of endocrine cells referred to as islets of Langerhans.
- These islets secrete two hormones insulin & glucagon
- Glucagon influences the liver to release glucose in blood & so the blood glucose concentration rises.
What happens if the pancreas does not produce a enough insulin?
what is insulin function?
- The blood glucose concentration rises, leading to diabetes mellitus.
- Insulin influences the liver to take excess glucose from blood & so the blood glucose concentration falls.
gonads? hormone? function?
how the gay people and weak guys have high pitch voice and what does this indicate? and they have less facial hair like asian guys?
if a girl wants to enlarge her breast? what should she do?
- Testes & ovaries are the male & female reproductive organs i.e. gonads.
- In addition to producing gametes, gonads also secrete hormones, called sex hormones
- Testes secrete hormones e.g. testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male secondary sex characters such as growth of hair on face & coarseness of voice etc. this means they have low testesrone levels.
- Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone, which are responsible for the development of female secondary characters such as the development of breast etc.
work on how to increase the production of estrogen & progesterone. foods
What regulates the secretion of hormones in endocrine glands?
regulated by feedback mechanisms, which can be either positive or negative. Feedback mechanism means the regulation of a process by the output of the same process.
When blood glucose levels rise, the pancreas secretes insulin to lower the levels. When levels drop to normal, insulin secretion stops. Similarly, low blood glucose triggers glucagon release, raising glucose levels until normal, when glucagon secretion stops.
Give an example of negative feedback
What is negative feedback in hormonal regulation?
What happens in positive feedback in hormonal regulation?
an example of positive feedback in the human body.
the output of a process decreases or inhibits the process, helping return a condition to its normal value.
In positive feedback, changes resulting from a process increase the rate of the process.
the suckling action of an infant, which stimulates the production of a hormone in the mother that increases milk production.
How does the blood glucose concentration control the secretion of insulin and glucagon?
- when the blood glucose concentration rises, pancreas secretes insulin. It
decreases the blood glucose conc. Decline
in the blood glucose conc. to a normal set-point inhibits the secretion of insulin. - Similarly, when blood glucose conc. drops below normal, pancreas secretes glucagon. It raises the blood glucose conc. In this case, rise in the blood glucose conc. to a normal setpoint inhibits the secretion of glucagon.
Disorder of nervous system types examples
Vascular disorders are due to any disturbance in the blood supply to nervous system
while functional disorders are due to disturbance in nerve impulse generation and transmission.
vascular disorders e.g. paralysis & functional disorders e.g. epilepsy.
Q: What is paralysis?
Q: What often causes paralysis?
Q: What are common causes of damage leading to paralysis?
Q: How can paralysis manifest in the body?
A: Paralysis is the complete loss of function by one or more muscle groups.
caused by damage to the CNS
A: 3 Stroke (rupture in a blood vessel of the brain or spinal cord), blood clotting in these blood vessels, or poison produced by polio viruses.
Patient may have weak paralysis throughout his body or have paralysis in one side of body. There may also be paralysis in the lower extremities or in all four limbs.
Q: What is a stroke and how can it cause paralysis?
A: A stroke is the rupture or blockage of a blood vessel in the brain or spinal cord, which can cause damage leading to paralysis.
what is epilepsy? what does it cause?
Causes:
In younger people:
In people over 40:
At any age:
- a nervous disorder in which there is abnormal & excessive discharge of nerve impulses in brain.
- It causes unprovoked seizures in patient. A seizure of epilepsy is a temporary abnormal state of brain marked by convulsions.
- Epilepsy might be due to genetic or developmental causes.
- Brain tumors are a more common cause.
- Head injuries & infections in the brain can cause epilepsy.
developmental: how the brain developed
treatment of epilepsy?
causes?
antiepileptic drugs
antiseizure
how is image formed?
pg 38
explain pupil reflex in dim and bright light?
After striking the cornea, light passes through the pupil. The size of the pupil is adjusted by the muscles of the iris. The pupil constricts in bright light when the circular muscles of the iris contract. Similarly, the pupil dilates in dim light when the radial muscles of the iris contract.
the light rays coming from far object are _________.
so what to do to focus image on retina?
light rays from near object are ______.
so what to do?
how vitamin A produces?
less despersed
what is diabetes insipidus caused by? function. where is it secreted?
what are islets of langerhans?
what carries nerve impulse from eye to the brain? how?
which gland releases ADH, TSH glucagon, oestrogen, calcitonin
lack of ADH
posterior lobe of pituitary gland
optical nerves
