Component 3- stress Flashcards
What is Stress?
characteristics
- imbalance between the demands made on a person and the person’s ability to cope or adapt to demands
- natural response to threats
- not necessarily harmful, as mild forms can motivate and energise you
- if stress levels too high, it can cause issues such as hinder ability to prepare for and perform during exams
- not a mental health problem, but can lead to them
Outline Stress as a physical response
characteristics
- Hans Selye (1936) researched rats and discovered a generalised pattern that involves the nervous system
- Selye devloped General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which argues when a threat is identified the nervous system releases hornomes that prepare body to deal with stressor, e.g. adrenaline prepares body to face stressor by providing resources for fight or flight
- Selye (1936) coined word ‘stress’ in the psychological sense and used the word ‘eustress’ to describe positive stress (beneficial)
- stress can be necessary and useful to provide motivation and prepare us to face a situation, e.g. many sports people report they perform better when under certain level of stress/arousal
- too much stress and arousal may have negative effects on performance
Outline Stress as a psychological response
characteristics
- response to stress determined by perception of it
- Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed Transactional Model of Stress, which suggests stress does not exist solely within the evironment or within the person, but in the transaction between both
- according to model, individual ‘appraises’ situation and their capacity to cope with stressor determines the impact the stressor has on them
- appraisal involves assessing whether the stressor is a threat to the individual and whether they have the resources to cope. stress response determined by weighing up these components
- an individual faces with a exam who appraises it as a threat and that they cannot cope will response with negative emotions BUT someone who appraises situation as a challenge and can cope will experience more positive response.
Outline the 3 types of stress
characteristics
- accute stress: most common type and is a response to an immediate stressor such as taking an exam
- episodic acute stress: linked to repeated incidences of short term stress e.g. an individual becoming overloaded and taking o too much work and experiencing frequent demands on time and energy. This type can stop and cease to exist, unlike chronice stress, but can also become part of personality and lifestyle
- chronic stress: perists over long time periods and can be associated with stressors where individual perceives they have little or no control, for example relationship difficulties and being trapped in an unhappy long term relationship. Individuals suffering from chronic stress perceive their situation to be never ending and so get used to livinf with it, so is difficult to treat.
Outline the physical effects of stress
characteristics
- when body’s stress response activated, it produces short term physiological changes, including increased blood pressure, temperature and pupil dilation, muscular tension, heartburn and headaches
- acute and long term stress can have a long term effect on physical illness
- research shows stress can damage immune system, increasing vulnerability to infection as well as illness such as coronary heart disease
Outline the Psychological effects of stress
characteristics
- can cause short term and long term pshchological changes ranging from low self esteem to mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression
- stress not a mental health disorder, but ICD (international classification of diseases) and DSM (diagnostic statistical manual) identify stress related disorders and highlight different stress disorders exist and what their specific characteristics are
- stress can be the effect of mental health conditions
Outline the lifestyle effects of stress
characteristics
- many physical and psychological effects are compounded by lifestyle changes as an individual tries to cope with stress
- may start smoking, drinking alcohol and taking other substances as coping mechanisms
- may develop nervous habits such as nail biting and may experience sleep problems, which can have detrimental effects on health and stress levels
Outline exam stress as an effect of stress
characteristics
- teenagers experience exam stress
- report published by NSPCC in May 2015 reported that ChildLine service receiving record numbers of calls from students worrying about exams and reported a tripling in the number of those receiving counselling for exam stress
- this increase caused eductaion to enter top 10 of most frequent concerns alongside issues such as family relationships and bullying
- exams impossible to avoid so is vital methods are employed to manage stress, for example, exercising, time management, eating well, maintaining good sleep habits ad seeking support if needed
Outline How to make stress your friend
characteristics
- health psychologist Kelly McGonigal advocates view that stress causes negative physical and psychological effects because we believe it can
- argues health proffessionals tell people stress is bad for them, which may worsen situation
- suggests we cannot eliminate stress, so need to take advantage of them
- research by Keller et al (2012) supports this
- studied 30,000 Americans and found high stress associated with a 43% increased risk of death but only in those who believed stress was bad for their health
- this suggests that the perception of stress is the important part
- this research is correlational so does not prove causation, but it offers an interesting perspective, which is a more encouraging way of looking at stress than focussing only on negative effects of stress
- this approach fits closely with positive approach.
What is the sympathomedullary (SAM) pathway?
- A response to a stressor involving the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The stressor alerts the hypothalamus which activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS which sends signal to adrenal medulla which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline. Hormones travel to target organs e.g. heart causing increased heart rate and blood pressure
- parasympathetic branch of ANS slows body down to function normally when stressor gone
What is the flight or fight response?
-release of adrenaline and noradrenaline that prepares body to deal with perceived stressor
- causes blood and energy to be diverted from organs seen as non essential (stomach, immune system etc) and moved to muscles to cope with immediate stressor
- senses sharpened and person physically primed
How does the fight or flight response link to evolution?
- response linked to evolutionary past as a strategy to deal with stressors faced by ancestors.
- response was essential for survival for ancestors such as being attacked by tiger
- modern day threat now tend to include things such as sitting exams/ work place pressure BUT response not changed- response activated without need for physical action to respond, leaving person in long term state of physiological arousal which effects health
What is the Freeze response?
Gray (1988) suggest first response to danger is freeze response where animals and humans are hyper vigilant when deciding best action to respond to threat
- Burlow (2002) argued response may occur in situations where fight/flight uneffective so is an automatic uncontrollable reaction e.g. victims of violent crime report being unable to move when attacked
What cardiovascular issues can arise from long-term stress?
- Strokes and heart attacks (cardiovascular disorders) - Long-term stress damages the cardiovascular system.
- arteries block with dislodged plaque on blood vessel walls and illness occurs.
What did Heidt et al. (2014) find in their study regarding stress and heart problems?
- Their research involved both animals and medical staff in stressful environments.
- Found a significant correlation between adrenaline and heart problems
What are the strengths of the adrenaline and acute stress explanation?
- supporting evidence: Leor et al (1996) found increase in cardiovascular related illnesses/deaths after earthquake in california, so research shows adrenaline negatively impacts heart
- useful applications: biological treatments e.g. drug therapies used to manage stress such as beta blockers which are used for anxiety to reduce stress symptoms e.g. increased heart rate, as well as for treating heart conditions
- Neftel et al (1970) found participants given beta blocker had lower heart rates, better performance and less subjective fear than controls.
What are the weaknesses of the adrenaline and acute stress explanation?
- Nature/Nurture: reductionist as reduces complex stress response to a simple physiological process drawn from evolutionary past
- supports nature side of debate so incomplete and does not explain individual differences or complex psychological factors
- Stress may not be a causal factor: Dimsdale reviewed relationship between stress and cardiovascular problems and highlights people must be cautious when saying stress causes heary disease as other factors involved e.g. smoking- suggests stress not a causal factor as too many other factors involved
What are the methodological issues with the adrenaline and acute stress response?
research uses questionnaires so may be subjected to social desirability bias and sampling bias (if sample not representative of target pop then findings may not be generalisable)
What are the social issues with the adrenaline and acute stress response?
- BETA BIAS: samples predominantly male in studies and applied findings to all genders BUT evidence suggests fight/flight response different in females as thought they deal with stressors through social networking and tending to young (when under threat running/fighting would risk survival of offspring)
- this is adaptive response driven by oxytocin which thought to be higher in females than males (relaxes us and makes less fearful and more connected to others)
What are the cultural issues with the adrenaline and acute stress response?
- Cultural norms and expectations: different cultures have different social norms regarding expressing emotions, influencing how people cope with stress and whether they seek help
- Stigma around mental health: some cultures may have strong stigma associated with seeking help so stress not addressed effectively.
What are the ethical issues with the adrenaline and acute stress explanation for stress?
- Vulnerable populations: extra care should be taken when researching stress in vulnerable groups e.g. children or those with pre existing mental health conditions.
- Stress induction methods: if study intentionally induces stress, crucial to use appropriate safeguards and debriefing procedures to be ethical.
What is the Hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system/axis?
- a response to chronic stress that is much slower than the SAM and involves the release of cortisol which is used to prepare body to face stressor. HPA axis regulates stress response and is vital for survivial
Describe the response to stress regulated by the HPA axis
stressor activates SAM response and simultaneously HPA axis begins.
1. Hypothalamus recognises threat and produces corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) into bloodstream
2. CRH stimulates pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophichormone (ACTH)
3. ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol
What is Cortisol?
a hormone in the CNS that is released in stress response which can lower pain sensitivity and increase glucose availability that provides energy for a sustained period to cope with ongoing stressor
What effects does Cortisol have on memory?
- impairs memory when released during stress
- Kulmann et al (2005) gave cortisol to group of women asked to learn list of 30 words and found those given cortisol had reduced recall of words. This shows possible impact on memory has implications on performance under stress
- may explain why some students experience brain fog in exams
What effects does Cortisol have on health?
Cortisol causes immunosuppression when released. This involves the arrival of a stressor and the immune system is seen as non essential so energy from it is diverted elsewhere and the immune response is shut down. This is done by cortisol reducing inflammation caused by the immune system response
- If the stressor continues then immunosuppression means individual at risk of illness
- e.g. cushings syndrome means person has high cortisol levels are at higher risk of infectious diseases.
What effect does prenatal stress and the subsequent release of cortisol have on the foetus?
- O’Connor et al (2005) studied 74 children aged 10 with mothers who did questionnaires when pregnant as part of the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Researchers found when mothers more stressed in pregnancy, children had higher cortisol levels.
- Shows prenatal stress may have lasting effects on HPA system in children.
What are the strengths of the cortisol and chronic stress explanation for stress?
- Supporting evidence: research has shown immunosuppression can occur from stress. Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1984) investigated effects of stress on immune system by measuring natural killer (NK) cell activity in 75 med students 1 month before exams and during exam period itself. NK cell activity reduced in blood sample taken during exams.
- Reductionist explanation: provides simple and predictable explanation that is easy to measure. Research by Kiecolt-Glaser et al demonstrated immunosupression in a scientific way and casual patterns shown led to development of medication which improves functioning of immune system.
- reductionist approach minimises ethical issue of responsibility as individuals cannot be blamed for illnesses due to cortisol levels they cannot control
What are the weaknesses of the cortisol and chronic stress explanation for stress?
- Stress is not always bad for the immune system: research suggests stress may enhance immune system. Evans et al (1994) examined antibody SigA and examined SigA levels in students required to complete presentations (immediate stressor) and during exam period (long term stressor) and found sigA increased immediately but decreased during exam period.
- Suggests stress enhances immune system in short term stress, so shows explanation too simplistic and stress is more complex - Nature/Nurture: reductionist as reduces complex stress responses. Supports nature side of debate so offers incomplete picture that does not explain individual differences or complex psychological factors.
What are the methodological issues with the cortisol and chronic stress explanation for stress?
- Cause and Effect difficult to establish between stress related cortisol release and subsequent illness, as stressed people often change eating habits, may not sleep well and may consume more alcohol and caffeine (all increase cortisol levels so confound research findings)
- does not consider age and gender differences: Lopez-Duran et al (2009) found variations in cortisol release in children when placed in stressful situation. Found boys showed greater cortisol activation in response to stressor.
What are the social issues with the cortisol and chronic stress explanation for stress?
- researcher is mostly male participants, taking results and applying to all individuals. Nomothetic approach ignores gender differences despite research suggesting males and females have different stress responses, so explanation may be falling for beta bias
- places blame on mother as explains child’s increased cortisol in terms of issues in pregancy
What are the cultural issues with the cortisol and chronic stress explanation for stress?
- different cultures have different strengths and natures of their social support systems, which can impact how individuals manage stress
- different cultures experience different stressors e.g. someone in a poorer country would be stresses about keeping their child alive , but research based on western cultures who comparatively may experience different stressors such as exam stress
What are the ethical issues with the cortisol and chronic stress explanation for stress?
- extra care should be taken when researching stress in vulnerable groups such as children and those with pre existing mental health conditions
- If found that individual has chronic stress and so high cortisol then it should be ensured they receive or are receiving adequate help and support if necessary to lower cortisol and stress levels.
Introduce Hardiness as an individual differences explanation for stress
Psychologists have explored individual differences in the way people respond to stress including the Hardy personality. Those with hardy personalities survive difficult situations and respond positively to stress. They can cope with stressors and stop them from having a negative impact on their health and lives. Those with a hardy personality focus on what they can do rather than what they cannot do, turning stressful experiences into growth oportunities.
What is the Hardy Personality?
- Kobasa and Maddi suggest those w/ hardy personality better able to cope with stress and have 3 main beliefs:
- Individual believes they have CONTROL over their life, their decisions and will act as required to change direction of their life
- Individual has COMMITMENT and believes they have a purpose in life, they take risks, are engaged in life, shuld commit to thing in life and not withdrawl from situations
- Individual likes CHALLENGE and perceives stress as opportunity to grow and develop, accepting stress and change as part of normal life and can be overcome. View life as a learning curve
What is the difference between Hardy and Non hardy people?
- Hardy people identify stressful circumstances and analyse what can be done to resolve them BUT non hardy people avoid stress by engaging in distraction e.g. gambling/overspending
- Hardy people get social support from others and can give it back BUT non hardy people feel victimised by others
- Hardy people have a healthy diet and lifestyle as well as engaging in relaxation BUT non hardy people have a poor diet and low exercise levels
How do the characteristics of a hardy personality buffer against stress?
- resilience acts as a buffer against stress, protecting individual from harm
- Hardy personalities cope with stress and utilise a range of coping strategies such as social support and ensuring self care
- Due to hardy characteristics, individual less likely to experience high stress levels and so have a lesser physiological response such as increased heart rate, blood pressure and cortisol production
- Means individual less likely to have stress related illness, as no high levels of stress hormones such as cortisol
Outline the research by Kobasa (1979)
early research by kobasa and Maddi demonstrated those with hardy personality were better able to cope with stressors in their lives
- used a version of a Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and an illness survey to compare two groups of male business executives
- one group had experienced high stress in previous 3 years without contracting illness and other groups had experienced high stress levels and did contract illness
- personality tests showed group who experienced high stress without contracting illness had a more hardy personality
Outline the research by Maddi (1987)
early research by kobasa and Maddi demonstrated those with hardy personality were better able to cope with stressors in their lives
- carried out research on employees of Bell telephone company during stressful period of redundancies and restructure
- assessed persoanlity and found one third of sample had a hardy personality and had less stress related illness such as heart attack, than those without hardy personality- shows hardiness protects against stress effects
Outline the research by Bartone (1999)
Research that has shown the benefits of hardiness across a wide range of settings
- found soldiers with a higher hardiness level were more able to cope with stress from both life events and occurrences in combat
- hardy soldiers less likely to experience long term health consequences of these events such as PTSD or depression
What is an overall limitation of the Hardy personality as an explanation for stress?
individual differences
uses self report methodology to measure hardiness which has limitations such as social desirablity bias
What are the strengths of Hardiness as an explanation for stress?
Supporting evidence
* explanation suggests hardiness protects against stress and subsequent illness
* evidence to support view comes from Bartone (1999) who studied those in military in different activities such as peacekeeping and combat. Found those with low hardiness levels had increased vulnerability to stress and PTSD
* research on Norwegian navy cadets found those with unbalanced personalities e.g. high levels of comitment and control but low challenge levels, more likely to experience immunosupression than those with all 3 components of hardy personality
* research examples show those with hardy personality with all 3 components has ability to protect from -ve effects of stress
What are the weaknesses of Hardiness as an explanation for stress?
Individual differences
- Importance of all 3 elements
* Maddi (2013) argues all 3 elements of hardy personality needed to protect against stress BUT other researchers disagree
* Sandvik (2013) studied 21 Norwegian navy cadets during a stressful exercise, collecting hardiness scores a couple days before and collecting blood samples midway and at end of exercise. All scored high in hardiness BUT some were high in commitment and control but low in challenge (termed unbalanced hardiness group and those with all 3 were termed balanced hardiness group).
* Unbalanced Hardiness group showed more potentially damaging immune responses to stress in blood samples SO low challenge levels may make people more vulnerable to stress in ambiguous situations. suggests some elements of hardiness have bigger role than others - Neuroticism
* Fun and Houston (1987) noted overlap between items on hardiness scale and items used to measure neuroticism
* those high in neuroticism dwell on failures and focus on negative aspects of life. More likely to over exaggerate illness SO participants in research who are classified as having low hardiness levels may not have more stress related illness but are just more neurotic so report more complaints. If neuroticism controlled, then relationship between hardiness and illness not always seen
What are the methodological issues with Hardiness as an explanation for stress?
individual differences
- self report methods- measuring hardiness relies on self report methods, which may be subject to social desirability bias
- many scales used to measure hardiness so may cause confusion when comparing different studies, as any differences in results may be due to different scales used by different researchers
* Funk (1992) recommends using DRS (Dispositional Resilience Scale) as a more uniform approach, claiming it’s better as it measures all 3 components equally and is more widely available
What are the social issues with the Hardy personality as an explanation for stress?
individual differences
Nomothetic
* explanation dictates that those with all 3 hardiness components will respond postively to stress. This generalisation ignores individual differences such as gender and variation in personality
* original research into hardiness by Kobasa (1979) used all male sample, so results may be different in females (gender bias)
* Shepperd (1991) highlighted inconsistent findings when considering gender and how hardiness impacts stress response. This research found control and commitment elements predicted health outcomes for males, not females
* shows it may be important to consider different elements of hardiness when considering individual differences such as gender
* Shepperd (1991) suggests hardiness effects may be different in different age groups and it may be that relationship between hardiness and stress outcomes only evident in older women and so may explain incosistent results.
What are the cultural issues with the Hardy personality as an explanation for stress?
Individual differences
- cultural norms and expectations: different cultures have different social norms around the expression of emotions which may influence how people cope with stress and whether they seek help
- the strength and nature of social support systems in a culture can effect the management of stress within individuals in culture
What are the ethical issues with the Hardy personality as an explanation for stress?
individual differences
- extra care should be taken when researching stress in vulnerable groups like children or those with pre existing mental health conditions
- researchers should be transparent about findings and avoid presenting stress levels in misleading or harmful ways.
Introduce the personality types explanation for stress?
Individual differences-personality types
Type A personality is one of the most famous personality types associated with stress. Those with this personality type are ambitious and impatient, so have a stronger physiological response to stress, so may be more likely to experience negative health effects from stress such as coronary heart disease. Those with a Type B personality contrast greatly, with their laid back and relaxed nature.
What are the characteristics of Type A and B personality types?
Individual differences- personality types
- Friedman and Rosenhan identified Type A and Type B personality
- Type A personalities are competitive, self critical, have a sense of urgency in everything they do, get angry easily, have no sense of joy when focussing on goals and no pleasure in accomplishment, overworkers
- Those with type A personalities tend to have high blood pressure, cannot publically express emotions, see the worst in others and display anger, envy and jealousy
- Type B personalities are able to express feelings, are calm, felxible, tolerant, relaxed and have lower anxiety levels.
What is the link between Type A personality and stress-related illnesses?
Individual differences- personality types
- research suggests Type A personalities more likely to experience fight/flight response so more likely to have regular adrenaline release than Type B
- leads to higher blood pressure and increased risk of coronary heart disease
Outline The Western Collaborative Group Study
Individual differences- personality types
- The Western Collaborative Group study (Rpsenman et al 1976) aimed to establish whether a link exists between personality type and risk of developing coronary heart disease
- longitudinal study of 3154 men from California
- men categorised as either Type A/B personality using an interview task
- 8.5 years later Rosenman et al (1976) found that 70% participants who developed coronary heart disease had Type A personality
- Type A personality also had higher blood pressure and higher cholesterol then type B’s.
Outline the Framington Heart study and research by Haynes et al (1982), which both support the findings from The Western Collaborative Group study
Individual differences- personality types
- large scale Framington Heart study based in Boston University has gathered large amount of data about risk factors for coronary heart disease since 1948
- Haynes et al (1982) report that in their sample, Type A behaviour associated with an increase in risk of coronary heart disease over the subsequent 10 years.
What are the positive factors of a Type A personality?
Individual differences- personality types
- ambition, strong work ethic, high levels of motivation, strong time management, competetiveness which can drive achievement, goal focussed.
- highly driven and successful in pursuits due to proactive approach to tasks and desire to excel.
- strong work ethic and time management can lead to high productivity
- goal focussed which can make them resilient and able to push to persevere through setbacks.
What are the strengths of persoanlity types as an explanation for stress?
Individual differences- personality types
Supporting Evidence:
* Friedman et al (1975) asked participants to complete unsolvable puzzle in a stressful loud environment in return for a reward.
* found through observation that Type A individuals behaved in a more stressful way tha type B (annoyed, hostile, angry)
* Type A people had high adrenaline levels during task, despite similar levels to type B before task
* shows explanation correct as physiological response for type A people different and are more at risk of developing stress related illnesses such as coronary heart disease
Contradictory evidence
What is a weakness of persoanlity types as an explanation for stress?
Individual differences- personality types
Contradictory evidence:
* Ringland and Bland (1988) followed up 257 participants from Western Collaborative Group study after 22 years to look at longer term effects
* found that behaviours such as smoking and cholesterol levels were important predictors of having coronary heart disease, Type A behaviours did not show a significant correlation with it
* type A more likely to suffer from heart disease than type Bs, BUT type As more likely to survive cardiovascular disorder e.g. heart attack
* BUT possible a confouding variable was introduced by the publication of initial results which led to type As to adjust their stressed behaviour, reducing negative responses to stress
* critics argue explanation incomplete and does not fully explain individual’s stress response.
The role of hostility
What is a weakness of personality types as an explanation for stress?
Individual differences- personality types
- possible that certain traits of type A personality may be more important than others in making person more prone to stress related illnesses.
- Hecker et al (1988) re examined cases from the Western Collabrative Group Study, assessing the influence of different components of type A personality. Found hostility had most significant relationship with subsequent coronary heart disease and suggested many traits of type A do not significantly increase risk.
- may be helpful for those with type A, so they can focus on one trait to develop a more constructive response to stress.
What are the methodological issues with the personality types explanation for stress
individual differences- personality types
research into stress uses questionnaires, which has limitations including social desirability bias and demand characteristics (participants may try to guess researcher’s expectations and respond accordingly, affecting validity of results.
What are the social issues with the persoanlity types explanation for stress?
Individual differences- personality types
Gender bias:
* orginal study by Friedman and Rosenhan carried out only on men and type A traits such as masculinity and competitiveness could be considered male centred traits. Women may not show same characteristics/relationship with stress
* a review by Baker et al (1984) found women did show similar levels of type A personality traits and also show greater autonomic arousal to stressors, suggesting would also have same negative effects on health
What are the cultural issues with the personality types explanation for stress?
Individual differences- personality types
Culture bias:
* Helman (1987) argues the concept of type A personality is culture biased
* developed on a sample from USA and the values of being a workaholic and competetive embody western ideals and norms and not found in non western cultures.
* Helman suggets the concept may only be useful when looking at the response of certain cultures to stress.
What are the ethical issues with the personality types explanation for stress?
Individual differences- personality types
- extra care should be taken when researching stress in vulnerable groups like children or those with pre existing mental health conditions
- if a study intentionally induces stress it is crucial to use ethical methods with appropriate safeguards and debriefing procedures.
Conclude the personality types explanation for stress
individual differences- personality types
clear to see from research that some people are more vulnerable and susceptible to stress than others. The relationship between personality and stress is complex, with many intervening factors such as culture and age. Managing stress and understanding our personality is becoming increasingly important in the workplace. Organisations are encouraged to develop wellbeing strategies for all employees, of which understanding and managing stress is vital for a successful and productive workforce.
Introduce the life events explanation for stress
social
Major life events such as divorce, breavement or health problems will likely be a key source of stress throughout our lives. Life events require lifestyle adjustments and time and energy to deal with them. Scales have been developed by researchers to measure the impact these events and there appears to be a relationship between life events and stress related illnesses.
What are life events?
social
- a poitive or negative change/event that requires significant adjustment or transition.
- may include divorce, bereavement, health problems
- adjustment process can be stressful, so researchers have become interested in impact of significant life events on stress and subsequent health
How have life events been measured? Outline the research studies
social
- Dr Holmes studied TB patients and found many that became ill had life events in previous 2 years.
- Holmes and Rahe (1976) developed a list of life events and asked 394 participants to rate each one in terms of how much life readjustment each one would require. Led to development of Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) that has life events with a life change unit (LCU) score.
- Participants asked to tick life events experienced in last 2 years giving them a total LCU score, the higher, the more life changes and more likelt person to suffer from stress and illness.
- Estimated a score of 300 increased chance of stress related illness by 50%.
Outline research by Rahe et al (1970)
- distributed the SRE (schedule of recent experience- alternative scale) questionnaire ro 2684 navy personnell serving on 3 military cruisers
- each participant completed SRE before and during 6-8 month tour of duty at sea and a record of illnesses kept
- found a positive correlation between stressful life events and illness. Strongest with life events 6 months prior to ilness
What is one overall limitation of the life events explanation for stress?
social
Cultural bias:
* scale developed in USA, but other cultures may react differently to different life events.
* Zheng and Lin (1994) looked at SRRS using Chinese participants. Death of a spouse still rated as most significant life change, but there were differences e.g. they rated death of a close family member more stressful than divorce, but in original SRRS these were swapped.
* perhaps events seen as stressful by one cultural group not perceived in same way by another due to differences in cultural beliefs and expectations so scale has a cultural bias
What are the strengths of the life events explanation for stress?
social
Supporting Evidence:
* Cohen et al (1993) wanted to assess relationship between life events and stress in more controlled way.
* researchers gave 394 participants variety of questionnaires to complete including a lie events scale
* Ps then exposed to common cold virus, quaranteend and monitored for signs of infection
* High life events scores positively correlated with an increased risk of getting a cold. This suggests there are biological changes linked to experience of life events that lead to higher susceptibility to infection.
* controlled factors such as age, weight etc and still found relationship between stress and subsequent vulnerability to illness.
What are the weaknesses of the life events explanation for stress?
social
- Issues in recall- people may not accurately recall life events using SRRS. Raphael et al (1991) testes this by asking group of women to report on life events each month for 10 months. At 10 months only a quarter of events were on both lists. Researchers suggest checklist approach should not be used as there are methodological issues such as social desirability bias.
- Correlation not causation: research is correlational. May be other factors that contribute to relationship between life events and stress related illness. Muckolls et al (1972) looked at impact of life changes on preganant women particularly pregnancy complications. 90% women with high life change but low social support had complications but only 33% with high life change but high social support scores. Suggests social support was an important intervening variab,e in influencing how much of an impact life events had on individual.
What are the methodological issues with the life events explanation for stress?
social
Questionnaires used in research so has limitations:
1. Social desirability bias
2. demand characteristics (participants may try to guess researcher expectations and respond accordingly, affecting results)
What are the social issues with the life events explanation for stress?
social
Beta bias
* focusses on nurture side of nature/nurture debate which is a reductionist viewpoint that simplifies complex stress to a series of life events, ifgnoring gender and assuming a nomothetic view that all individuals will experience a life event the same way
* pregnancy is attributed 40 LCU on the SRRS. Individual with planned pregnancy, with a supportive partner and stable home life may find event less stressful than another with unplanned pregnancy, no partner or steady living arrangement, but LCU score still the same.
* SRRS does not consider individual differences as score is fixed
* Individual differences such as gender must be considered as different genders may deal with life events differently e.g. CG men may deal with new parenthood differently to CG women.
What are the cultural issues with the life events explanation for stress?
social
Cultural bias
* scale developed in USA, so different cultures may react differently to different life events
* Zheng and Lin (1994) looked at SRRS using chinese participants and death of a spouse still rated most significant life event BUT they rated death of a close family member more stressful than divorce, when in original this was swapped.
* events seen as stressful by one culture may not be perceived in same way by all cultures due to different cultural beliefs and expectations.
What are the ethical issues with the life events explanation for stress?
social
- extra care should be made when researching stress in vulnerable groups e.g. children/individuals with pre-existing mental health conditions
- Data analysis and reporting: researchers should be transparent about the findings and avoid presenting stress levels in a way that could be misleading/harmful
Conclude the life events explanation for stress
social
- the transactional model of stress suggests life events do not provide a complete explanation. According to this model, stress does not exists solely within the person, nor the environment, but within the transaction between the two.
- appraisal of the situation and individual’s capacity to cope will determine the impact the stressor has e.g. losing a job, some would feel they are overwhelmed and unable to cope, but others may see this as an opportunity they can cope with.
- Suggests life events explanation incomplete and not fully developed.
Introduce the Daily Hassles Social explanation for stress
Life events that may cause stress, such as divorce are thankfully rare occurrences. Some psychologists have suggested daily hassles may be a more significant source of stress and so are more worthy of research. Daily hassles are everyday stressors such as arguing with family.
What are Daily hassles? What are daily uplifts?
- daily hassles are more commonly experienced forms of stress in comparison to life events. They are the daily minor irritations that may trigger a stress response, such as losing keys or missing the bus.
- Daily uplifts are small positive events that make us happy such as getting a good grade on a test or receiving a compliment
- Thought that uplifts can neutralise harm from daily hassles by making one feel more positive. They provide breaks from hassles or provide energy to sustain any coping strategy being used.
Outline the research by Kanner et al (1981) into the impact of daily hassles on stress and health
- AIM: to compare the impact of life events and daily hassles as sources of stress
- 100 participants completed the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP)
- Found the fewer the hassles, the better the wellbeing. Found hassles were a better predictor of wellbeing than life events and uplifts
- Identified most common hassles which included weight concerns, health of a family member, having too many things to do etc
- Identified most coomon uplifts which included relating well with friends, completing a task, feeling healthy, getting enough sleep etc
- research shows close relationship between daily hassles and illnesses and the relationship appears to be stronger than that found between life events and illnesses.
What is one issue with research on daily hassles?
individual differences. one person might see a hassle as an uplift and vice versa. Also likely to be differences depending on age and culture.
How do daily hassles have an accumulation effect?
- build up of stressors over time leads to negative effects
- each hassle may not be very stressful but many close together may lead to ongoing stress and the negative effects associated with it
- hassles often experienced daily such as those associated with family and so are hard to avoid which can make the problem worse
How can hassles lead to amplification?
- may be that chronic stress from life events makes people more vulnerable to effects of daily hassles.
- individual already experiencing stress and so resources are depleted, so may find usually minor daily hassles for difficult to cope with
- e.g. divorce may cause someone to find it harder to cope with a usually minor work problem
- life events also often create hassles, e.g. divorce leads to having to manage finances and care for children alone.
What did Flett et al (1995) discover about the amount of social support those dealing with daily hassles may receive? What does this show us about why daily hassles have so many negative effects?
- asked 320 students to read a story describing an individual who had experienced either a life event or daily hassle
- students then rated amount of social support the person would seek and receive from others
- individuals who had experienced life events rated as being more in need of and seeking out more social support from others
- may be one reason daily hassles cause so many issues is that people do not seek out and receive adequate social support to deal with them
What is an overall limitation of the daily hassles social explanation for stress?
- age differences
- Aldwin et al (2014) used data from longitudinal study from 1389 male participants ranging in age from 48 to 101
- between ages 48 and 70 participants experienced fewer hassles, perhaps as they became more settled and more used to dealing with them
- as they got older they showed increase in hassles and decreased uplifts. Hassles more impactful
- suggests as people age they are not as capable at dealing with hassles
- but older age means new problems emerge that may make it harder to deal with hassles. This combined with fewer opportunities for uplifts may lead to stress
- research also shows importance of considering age when carrying out studies into impact of stress sources such as daily hassles
What is the strength of the daily hassles social explanation of stress?
- supporting evidence
- research suggested strong relationship between hassles and negative health effects
- Bouteyre et al (2007) studied 223 French students as they moved from school to uni. Found 41% sufferred depressive symptoms and a significant risk factor was the daily hassles they had
What are the weaknesses of the daily hassles explanation of stress?
- age differences
- the scale may measure psychiatric problems, not hassles.
* Dohrenwend et al (1984) questioned the use of hassles scale to predict health changes.
* Asked 371 clinical psychologists to assess instruments such as the Hassles and uplifts scale (HSUP) and found large overlap of items on scale and symptoms of psychological disorders. E.g. not getting enough sleep listed as a hassle but insomnia is a depression symptom
* may mean hassles scale is measuring psychiatric problems, which would explain the correlation between hassles and psychological problems BUT does not mean hassles are the cause.
What are the methodological issues with the daily hassles social explanation of stress?
- research relies on self report methods when using the HSUP scale, so may be issues with social desirability. Hassles are negative so people may not want to report them, particularly if hassles relate to social issues such as family feuds as dont want to admit there is a problem
- HSUP scale does not allow people to select anything less than somewhat severe for each event so does not allow people to indicate they have experienced a hassle but were not affected. Likely to be individual differences in perception and responses to hassles and scale may not allow for this. (Dohrenhwend et al 1984)
What are the social issues with the daily hassles social explanation for stress?
- beta bias
- clearly focusses on nurture side of nature/nurture debate
- reductionist, simplifying complex stress to a series of daily hassles, ignoring gender and assuming a nomothetic view that all individuals will experience a life event in the same way
- individual differences such as gender must be considered as different genders may deal with daily hassles differently
- e.g. CG men and women may deal with lack of social support differently to Trans men and women.
- Much of research conducted on CG men and so cannot be generalised to other genders
What are the cultural issues with the daily hassles social explanation for stress?
cultural bias
* research conducted in western cultures so cannot be generalised to other cultures
* a daily hassle seen as stressful by one culture may not be seen as stressful by another culture due to differences in cultural beliefs and expectations
What are the ethical issues with the daily hassles social explanation for stress?
- vulnerable populations: extra care should be taken when researching stress in vulnerable groups such as children or those with pre existing mental health conditions
- stress induction methods: if a study intentionally induces stress, it’s crucial to use ethical methods with appropriate safeguards and debriefing procedures
- data analysis and reporting: researchers should be transparent about the findings and avoid presenting stress levels in a way that could be misleading/harmful
Introduce beta blockers as a method of modifying stress
Beta blockers are used to treat heart problems but are also often used to reduce physical symptoms of stress. For example, for many individuals stress can have an inhibitory effect on their performance, such as musicians, so beta blockers often used to treat the stress symptoms. There are many ways in which beta blockers can be effective to treat stress, however there are also ethical implications associated with their use.
How do beta blockers work?
- beta blockers act as antagonists, so reduce activity of sympathetic nervous system and so reduce the subsequent symptoms, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure, which can lead to long term issues such as cardiovascular disorders
- They block receptor sites for hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, so beta blockers stop these hormones from increasing heart rate and person feels calmer and less anxious and thus reducing physical symptoms of stress
- do not completely stop anxiety but mask the physical symptoms. Beta blockers particularly useful in acute stress situations such as giving a public speech. Individual will not experience shaking, sweating so negatve effects of stress reduced.
Outline the different types of beta blockers
- Non selective beta blockers: such as propanolol, block adrenaline and noradrenaline in other areas of body as well as heart. Block beta1 and beta2 receptors so affect heart, kidneys, liver etc
- Selective beta blockers: such as atenolol, affect mostly heart so have less effect on other parts of body. Block only beta1 receptors and as such will affect mostly the heart and cause reduced cardiac output
How are Beta blockers precribed for use ‘off label’?
- primarily prescribed for conditions such as high blood pressure and angina but prescribed ‘off label’ for anxiety conditions
- manufacturer not applied for license for beta blockers to be used to treat anxiety so drug has not undergone clinical trials to test if it is safe and effective when being used for the particular condition
- BUT if a doctor feels prescribing beta blockers for anxiety has benefits that outweigh any risks then they can do so
- usually prescribed at a lower dose than that used for cardiac problems.
How are Beta Blockers used by Musicians?
- due to calming effects musicians have reported using them to help them overcome stage fright and make them more able to perform under pressure
- Alan Lockwood (1989) studied over 2000 musicians in major US symphony orchestras and found 27% used beta blockers and 19% used it on a daily basis
- More up to date research is limited but anecdotal evidence suggests the number today may be high (Tindall, 2004)
What benefits on performance do Beta Blockers have?
evaluation effectiveness
- can be effective in reducing performance anxiety in musicians
- Klaus Neftel at al (1982) gave string players a beta blocker or a placebo 6.5 hours before performing. Those given beta blocker had lower heart rates and were able to play more complex parts of the music more accurately. Also had less self reported stage fright after performance compared to placebo
- BUT there may be differences in the effects on self reported stress levels depending on the beta blocker used.
- Renate Schweizer et al (1991) compared effects of different types of beta blockers to placebo on student stress levels when taking a maths test. Found there were differences in subjective ratings of stress among groups, even though all beta blockers worked and reduced heart rate.
What benefits for other aspects of stress do beta blockers have?
evaluation effectiveness
- Lars Schwabe et al (2011) suggest one of the negative effects of stress is that stressed people fall into begatuve habits such as addiction rather than focussing on their important goals.
- they used a laboratory task which concerned food rewards. There were 3 groups, one had no stress, one was stressed and given a beta blocker and one was stressed but given a placebo tablet.
- found stress group with placebo continued with habits already formed but stress group with beta blocker were just as goal directed as those who received no stress.
- suggests beta blockers prevented stress induced bias towards habit behaviour
- This was an artificial environment and task but it shows another potentially useful application of beta blockers for dealing with psychological rather than physical effects of stress.
How are beta blockers effective in the long term?
evaluation effectiveness
- use of beta blockers to treat anxiety and stress has been criticised in terms of long term effectiveness
- beta blockers target outward physical signs of stress but do not adress psychological and emotional effects
- if an individual is suffering stress due to irrational thinking or type A personality then drug does not address these issues, so root cause of stress not addressed
- psychological therapy such as stress inoculation training (SIT) may be more appropriate to provide long term coping strategies to use across range of situations
- beta blockers may only be useful for specific performance based scenarios such as stage performance or sport and may not work for chronic stress such as problems in relationships/bereavement.
Do beta blockers have negative side effects?
evaluation- ethical implications
- tend to be mild and temporary such as dizziness, diarrhoea and nausea, blurred vision and cold hands and feet. May cauuse sleep issues and shortness of breath in asthmatics but overall compared with other antianxiety drugs like benzodiazepines the effects are minimal
- BUT stopping taking them suddenly could cause issues such as heart palpitations or a rise in blood pressure, as body has become used to drug’s effects in slowing down the sympathetic response.
- Individual may become psychologically dependent on the drug and may feel they cannot cope without it.
Is it ethical to use beta blockers to enhance performance?
evaluation ethical implications
- the use of beta blockers by musicians and in sports raises important ethical question.
- beta blockers banned for use in most sports, which suggests they are viewed as unethical
- key part of high level performance in sport is the ability to perform under pressure, so beta blockers may be seen as providing an unfair advantage
- BUT some may argue beta blockers specifically do not enhance performance in the same way that steroids may for example. Instead they stop the anxiety interfering with performance would be ethically accepatable
What are the impacts of prescribing off label beta blockers as a social implication?
evaluation social implications
- when beta blockers given for stress and anxiety they are prescribe doff label as they have not been licensed for use in this way, which also means controlled long term research into drug effects likely to be limited
- Hsiang-Wen Lin et al (2006) reported the proportion of off label beta blocker use was an average of about 52% of beta blocker precriptions
- use od drugs in this way creates a dilemma for health proffessionals
- Christopher Wittich et al (2012) note there are potential issues with lawsuits against doctors and drug companies if there are any harmful effects
- may be issues with valid consent if off label use is not explained to the individuals taking the beta blockers.
What is the social implication of beta blockers possibly being over prescribed?
- some medical proffessionals have expressed concern that beta blockers are being overprescribed for treating stress
- anxiety is becoming a bigger issue in society and treatments are limited. Psychological drugs are more expensive than beta blockers, so prescribing beta blockers may be more cost effective so better for the economy.
- BUT beta blockers do not deal with the root cause of the stress.
Introduce Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) as a method of modifying stress
Stress inoculation training (SIT) is a type of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy that is designed to help individuals cope more effectively with stressful situations. SIT gives people coping mechanisms they can use to manage stress before, during and after stressful events. SIT aims to ‘inoculate’ /protect people against future stress by teaching them to be more resilient.
What is Inoculation, in terms of stress inoculation training?
- Inoculation means to prevent disease by vaccinating against it, often with a weakened form of the disease
- SIT gives individuals experience of minor stressors that make them more prepared and resilient.
- This can help people develop coping mechanisms and confidence in their ability to deal with stressful situations in the future
- The stressor individuals encounter as part of the inoculation process must be strong enough to make their defences sharpen but not strong enough to cause negative psychological effects
Outline the importance of perception, stated by the Transactional Model of stress and the Constructive Narrative Perspective
SIT- methods of modifying
- The Transactional Model of stress identifies the importance of how someone perceives a stressor and whether they believe they have the capability and resources to cope with it.
- SIT aims to give people the resources to perceive the stressor in a different way so they deal with it more effectively
- A Constructive Narrative Perspective (CNP) is the theory that people construct stories about themselves and others and the nature of the stories influences how they cope with stress
- SIT can be used to help people be more aware of behaviours that may be hindering rather than helping them cope with stress (e.g. repetitively thinking about a negative experience), which helps them adopt a more constructive narrative when faced with stressor.
Outline the process of SIT
methods of modifying
- customised to individual and will depend on stressor experienced and current coping abilties and areas the client could work on. Usually takes place over 8-15 sessions with possible follow up sessions. SIT is used by variety of people such as medical patients preparing for surgery, people with anxiety etc
1. Conceptualisation- relationship established between client and trainer. Client asked open ended questions to increase client awareness of nature and impact of stress and coping strategies. Trainer may help client reconceptualise problem by breaking down stressor into smaller components
2. skills acquisition and rehearsal- clients helped to acquire coping skills and consolidate existing ones. barries that may prevent them using these strategies removed. Strategies practiced and then generalised to real life settings so more useful
3. Application and follow through- client practice applying coping skills to different situations that get increasingly demanding. Techniques such as role play taught to prevent relapse by rehearsing situations in which stress symptoms may reappear. Particularly taught to see relapses as learning opportunities not problems. Bosster sessions may be used to ensure techniques used appropriately.
How is SIT used in the military?
Methods of modifying
- military face many stressors so SIT may leave them at less risk of future mental health problems such as PTSD and depression
- James Driskell and Joan Johnston (1998) note adapted form of SIT could be very useful in military. e.g. in first stage, trainees could be made aware the importance of stress training and may be put in a stressful situation to make them appreciate the physical stress responses that may occur such as raised heart rate
- in second phase specific training would be given on strategies that could be used to control cognitive skills such as attention, helping them to remain focussed on the task even when stressed. after gaining skills, individuals can practice them by training in situations resembling what they may encounter when on active service. Likely the intensity of stressors will increase over time
- research has shown SIT in military may help improve performance e.g. McClernon et al (2011) found military personnell who received SIT training performed better in a flight task than those who did not
- BUT assessing SIT impact in a real life conflict situation would be very difficult.
Evaluate the effectiveness of SIT
studies into effectiveness
- studies suggest SIT effective in reducing stress across many different settings.
- Teri Saunders et al (1996) reviewed 37 studies into SIT effectiveness in the workplace and concluded it was effective in enhancing performance under stress and reducing anxiety. Remained effective regardless of experience of trainer or setting carried out in. Led to improvements in both high and low anxiwty groups
- Richard Sheehy and John Horan (2004) examined effect of SIT on anxiety, stress and academic performance of first year law students. Participants recieved 4 weekly sessions each 90 mins of SIT, and they showed lower anxiety and stress levels over time
- studies support use of SIT in dealing with stress
Evaluate the effectiveness of SIT
determining which part is effective
- difficult to determine which of the 3 components is having the effect as they overlap each other. If the effective component determined, this may save time for patients
- Albert Moses and James Hollandsworth (1985) randomly allocated 24 dental phobics to 4 conditions
- some given the education component (stage 1) of SIT in isolation and others given this with other elements such as coping skills training.
- no significant differences in experimental groups in anxiety levels but more participants receiving coping skills training went to the appointments they made
- suggests education alone (stage 1) not sufficient in helping people overcome stress and application may be the most important part
Evaluate the effectiveness of SIT
comparison to other methods
- Edna Foa et al (1991,1999) carried out a series of studies comparing effectiveness of SIT with other methods for treatment of female victims of sexual assault. They considered the use of prolonged exposure (PE) as an alternative.
- PE involved client reliving traumatic memories by recalling them in the session and are taught how to confront situations that may remind them of the trauma they experienced.
- research found that although both SIT and PE effective in redcuing symptoms of PTSD and depression, PE more effective in reducing general levels of anxiety suggesting it was more useful
- BUT Meichenbaum (2007) highlighted that to carry out this research, some elements of SIT process removed, SO may not have been a fair comparison between SIT and PE.
Evaluate the ethical implications of SIT
risk of harm
- possible some processes of SIT may cause distress e.g. being asked to rehearse stressful situations may cause psychological harm
- BUT in comparison to drug therapies, the effects of SIT may be more long term, so the benefits may outweigh the costs. Small amount of stress experienced in SIT may be offset by bigger postive impacts it has on everyday life
Evaluate ethical implications of SIT
Using SIT in the military
- Adapted form of SIT used in military, where individuals likely to be directly exposed to stressors
- if stresors too intense this may be counterproductive
- Giora Keinan and Nehemia Friedland (1996) suggest this may prevent the effective acquisition of the skills needed and make individuals experience feelings of despair
- review of SIT in military found although special forced personnel were well prepared to deal with acute stress, like what would be experienced during war, they were less prepared to deal with chronic stress such as family problems (Manacapilli 2014)
Evaluate the social implications of SIT
stress in society
- SIT has been shown to useful across a range of stressors, so SIT potentially of benefit to society
- **Meichenbaum 2007) ** highlights the need for effective interventions to combat stress given the increased range of stressors society now encounters e.g. increased poverty, violence.
Evaluate the effectiveness of SIT
Impact on the economy
- stress has a big impact on economy and thus society
- e.g. employee performance may be affected by stress and people may take days off sick, due to effects of stress on physical and mental health
- effects of stress on physical and metal health cost health services money
- James Blumenthal et al (2002) carried out research on long term effectiveness of being taught stress management techniques.
- Men with coronary heart disease given stress management training and compared to a control group, and a group who took part in regular exercise.
- group who took part in stress management training experienced less health problems over the 5 year follow up and the healthcare costs were significantly lower.
- This is not specifically SIT, but research suggests giving people resources to cope with stress in any form it presents itself, this can have positive effects on economy and society.
