component 3- controversies

Question 1

Introduce the controversy, cultural bias

Answer 1

• A culture is defined as the rules, customs, morals and ways of interacting that bind together members of society. Culture can constarin the way we see, feel and think
• cultural bias occurs when people of one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of people from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practices
• much of traditional psychological research conducted on western cultures, which is not surpring as high percentage of world’s researchers and participants in research are from western cultures. This means that although most psychological theories and research techniques assumed ro be universal, they have a basis in a western world view, so when research applied to other cultures, it is likely to have a culture bias.

Question 2

What is a cross cultural study?

Answer 2

• conducted by psychologists to see whether cultural practices affect behaviour
• kind of natural experiment where the IV is the cultural practice and the DV is the behaviour
• enables researchers to see if variations in the levels of a certain behaviour (e.g. aggression) are due to different cultural practices (e.g. different culturally determined child-rearing techniques)

Question 3

What are the advantages of cross cultural studies?

Answer 3

• enable us to see whether behaviours are innate, as if a behaviour is the same in all cultures, this suggests behaviour is innate. David Buss (1989) looked at relationships in 36 countries and found the same mate preferences (men look for youth and good looks, while women look for resources, ambition and industriousness)

Question 4

What are the disadvantages of cross cultural studies?

Answer 4

• western researchers conducting research in a different culture may fail to understand local practices and meanings and so misinterpret a participant’s understanding
• In study by Buss (1989), participants were interviewed in each of the 36 countries by an indegenous researcher. Three bilingual speakers were employed, one translated the original questionnaire from english into their native language, the second translated the answers into english and the third resolved any discrepancies.
• This may resolve the disadvantage of researchers failing to understand different cultures and misinterpreting the results obtained
• Secondly, cross cultural studies may use tests of procedures developed in US and are not valid in other cultures. The use of psychological tests or techniques developed in one culture and used in another called an imposed etic.
• thirdly, the group of participants may not be representative of that culture, but still generalisations are made about the whole culture or even the whole country.
• Lastly, observer bias may be present, where the observer’s expectations alter what they ‘see’. investigator effects may be present, where participants try to guess what answers researcher wants and provides those answers.

Question 5

How is Difference confused with bias?

cultural bias

Answer 5

• easy to confuse difference with bias
• Many studies have founddifferences between human cultural groups. Myers and Diener (1995) conducted a cross cultural comparison that indicated cultural factors may influence subjective wellbing (SWB). They noted more people in individualist (people more concerned with individual needs) cultures report SWB than collectivist (people focus on the needs of the group) cultures.
• these differences are a fact and cultural bias is not concerned with these differences, but is concerned with the distorted view that psychologists have because of their own cultural beliefs and how the bias affects their theories and studies
• BUT finding a difference in SBW may be due to cultural bias e.g. if SWB is measured with a questionnaire designed by western researchers (an imposed etic) then the questions are probably based on western (individualist) assumptions of what constitutes SWB. This may mean that people from collectivist cultures may appear different, but the two cultures may not be different in terms of SWB, BUT the methods used to test SWB in people are biased so some cultural groups appear different.

Question 6

What can psychologists do to eliminate cultural bias?

Answer 6

• more non western countries are developing their involvement in psychological theory and research, so cultural bias is slowly being addressed
• Indigenous psychologies present alternatuve views of human behaviour

Question 7

Provide examples of cross cultural studies

Answer 7

• Myers and Diener’s (1995) research involved a cross cultural comparison that indicated that cultural factors may influence SWB. Research cited by researchers found that 10% people in portugal reported they were happy compared to 40% in Netherlands
• Kohlberg’s (1968) study of moral development using moral dilemmas found that children in mexico and Taiwan were the same in children in the US (kohlberg from US), but development was slightly slower. The hypothetical dilemmas may not have made the same sense to other cultural groups (example of using an imposed etic and culturally biased research)

Question 8

What is Ethnocentrism?

Answer 8

• the use of our own ethnic/cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups.
• it is a fairly natural human tendency (makes people feel better about themselves, as if people overestimate the value of the group they belong to snf underestimate the value of all other groups, self esteem increased.
• ethnocentrism is a psychological inevitability
• BUT needs to be minimised when conducting objective research

Question 9

What is Alpha bias?

Ethnocentrism

Rachel Hare-MUstin and Jeanne Maracek (1988) suggest there are 2 ways theories can be biased: alpha and beta bias

Answer 9

• the assumption there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups. In terms of ethnocentrism, this is the belief that one’s own culture is considered to be different and better, so other cultures and their practices are devalued

Question 10

What is beta bias?

ethnocentrism

Answer 10

refers to theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences. Ethnocentrism may lead to a beta bias if tests are assumed to have the same meaning in all cultures

Question 11

What is Cultural Relativism?

Answer 11

• opposite of ethnocentrism
• the idea that all cultures are equally worthy or respect and that in studying another culture, we need to try to understand the way that a particular culture sees the world
• can result in bias: alpha and beta

Question 12

How can cultural relativism result in alpha bias?

Answer 12

can lead to an alpha bias where the assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals

Question 13

How can cultural relativism lead to a beta bias?

cultural bias

Answer 13

• cultural relativism often discussed in the context of defining mental disorder e.g. hearing voices regarded as an unusual behaviour in the western world and taken as a symptom of schizophrenia
• BUT in some cultures hearing voices may be normal and people who report these symptoms may be misdiagnosed by western psychiatrists as schizophrenic, so the assumption of no difference causes a problem

Question 14

Outline different cultures may exist within a historical and social context

Answer 14

• concept of culture does not only apply to people living in different geographical locations
• Sub-cultures, such as student populations or nurses, so not have a particular geographical identity, but do have a common set of cutoms and beliefs etc.
• different historical periods can be regarded as different cultures. John Bowlby’s (1944) study of the effects of separation was conducted at a time when childcare arrangements were very different from today
• the findings of this study may not generalise well to modern arrangements because children are not cared for in the same way, partly due to the findings from this research.
• In the 21st Century more time is devoted to ensuring the emotional wellbeing of children and this may lead people to misjudge the standards in the 1940s/1950s.

Question 15

What has research into psychological research found about the cultural backgrounds of the participants used in psychological research?

Answer 15

• Smith and Bond (1998) analysed a British textbook and found 66% of the studies were American, showing most psychological research is conducted on American people
• David Sears (1986) reported 82% of research studies used undergraduates as participants in psychology studies, 51% of them psychology students, suggesting large proportion of psychology based on middle classed, academic, young adults who are often male)
• Joseph Heinrich et al (2010) confirmed these findings, and found 96% of participants in a sample of hundreds of studies in psychology journals were from western countries. In studies using US participants, 67% were undergraduate psychology students
• suggests a huge amount of psychology based on middle class, academic younf adults who are often male.This means psychological research is unrepresentative of the global population, and within the western cultures themselves
• Heinrich et al suggest psychological knowledge based on a WEIRD popluation- Westernised, educated people from Industrialised, rich democracies

Question 16

Are studies always ethnocentric/culturally biased, just because they were conducted in one culture?

Answer 16

• No
• Loftus and Palmer (1974) study of eyewitness testimony was conducted by US researchers and involved US participants
• the behaviour being studied (memory processes) is not variable across cultures
• this means this study is not ethonocentric or culturally biased

Question 17

Introduce the controversy, Ethical Costs of Conducting Research

controversy 2

Answer 17

• This is a debate because there is conflict between the needs of researchers to produce research that benefist society and the needs of individual participants who have the right to be treated fairly.
• It can be said that there are more ethical issues within psychology than in any other science for many reasons:
• psychology investigates humna behaviour, so conducts research on live creatures, unlike most other disciplines
• researchers often uncover unpleasant truths about human behaviour, partuclarly when exploring socially sensitive topics
• research can lead to the discovery of knowledge that may be used to control people, so results may have damaging effects in the wrong hands.

Question 18

How does Psychological research benefit society and the economy in terms of mental health?

Answer 18

• psychological research offers many benefits to society e.g. psychoactive drugs to treat mental health
• The McCrone report (2008) estimated direct costs of mental health in England are around £22.5 B a year
• the number of people receiving medication provides much greater economic gain than psychological therapies which may produce similar benefits but are far more expensive.
• SO, evidence based research on effective drug therapies is important in reducing costs and helping people return to work to be functioning members of society again.

Question 19

Outline the research conducted by Bowlby (1944) on Attachment

Answer 19

• studied 44 juvenile thieves, to find out if any of them had experienced prolonged maternal deprivation in the critical period of life, testing his maternal deprivation hypothesis. Bowlby labelled these thieves who had as affectionless psychopaths.
• research highlighted the importance of emotional care in early childhood development
• Unicef (2014) indicate the continuing influence this has on developmental policies in ensuring children grow into productive members of society, improving global economy
• before this research people believed children only needed physical care and not emotional care. This is still believed in some parts of the world

Question 20

What are the relevant ethical implications of the research conducted by Bowlby (1944)?

Answer 20

1. it is questionable whether valid consent was obtained from participants as research conducted in Bowlby’s clinic, and research not published until 5 or more years later, which may have identified the children involved, which may have breached confidentiality guidelines. He used his position of power to obtain the sample
2. No risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain: Bowlby labelled individuals as theives and affectionless psychopaths. This undeniably would have an effect on the child’s self esteem/self concept
3. Risk to the participants’ values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy: this is questionable as the children were attending the child guisance clinic so could not just simply leave the study.

Question 21

What are the benefits of Bowlby’s (1944) research to society and the economy?

Answer 21

• positively shaped childcare policy and procedures worldwide. The importance of bond formation was recognised and this led to institutional change e.g. foster care where child receives individual attention is now favoured over large scale orphanages without the emotional support needed
• maternity policies were reviewed due to this research, so now women and men are entitiled to one year maternity/paternity leave from employment to develop a strong emotional bond with babies
• emotionally secure individuals are able to form positive relationships and contribute to wider society, meaning they are less likely to experience crises and seek help from mental health services
• Chisholm (2010) reports average cost of impatient care for a single patient in the UK was £78,000 per year, which shows having healthy members of society could save economy and protect NHS mental health services when needed more than ever

Question 22

What are the costs of Bowlby’s (1944) research to society and the economy?

Answer 22

• labelling children as affectionless psychopaths may lead to discrimination, so cost society.
• young people from background of maternal deprivation may be judged and stigma may cause police to be more likely to arrest and charge them for a crime
• these young people may receive a criminal record and a future of unemployment and poverty, so they cannot contribute to society and the economy.

Question 23

Outline the research by Watson and Rayner (1920)-little albert and identify relevant ethical implications

ethical costs of conducting research

Answer 23

• psychological research starts with willing participants, to produce research findings
• society benefits from research findings but participant may not
• watson and rayner study demonstrated conditioned and emotional responses in Little Albert
• longitudinal research using 1 male infant
• research concluded that phobias can be learnt using principles of classical conditioning, thus they can be unlearnt in the same way
• ethical implications
• No risk of stress anxiety, humiliation or pain: little albert was sytematically scared until he developed a phobia
• Valid consent: researchers were leading physicians at hospital mum worked at and may have coerced her using their position to obtain consent
• damage reputation of psychology and limit the numbers volunteering for future research
• risk to participants values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy: diffuclt for alberts mum to leave study

Question 24

What are the benefits of Watson and Raynor’s (1920) research to society and the economy?

ethical costs of conducting research

Answer 24

• one participant harmed, but society has benefitted from development of therapy, systematic desensitisation therapy (SD) to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders.
• Rothbaum et al (2000) used SD with participants with a fear of flying. After treatment, 93% agreed to take a trial flight and anxiety levels were lower than control group.
• SD has saved economy millions in NHS funding. SD requires 6-8 sessions instead of repeat medication needed for prolonged period. This saving can be used on other NHS services.

Question 25

What are the costs of the research by Watson and Rayner (1920)?

Answer 25

• could damage the reputation of psychology. Society may believe the research is too unethical and so become less trusting in psychologists and psychological research
• this may mean less people are willing to participate in research and psychologists struggle to gather sample.

Question 26

Outline the study conducted by Milgram (1963)

Answer 26

• one of the most significant pieces of research ever done, but heavily criticised for ethics, especially as it was conducted after the publication of the APA ethical guidelines
• selected 40 male adult participants from New Haven who were required to complete a task on obedience, which involved delivering electric shocks
• research concluded that people are willing to commit acts against their conscience when instructed to do so by an authority figure.
• also concluded that situational factors are key in obedience

Question 27

Outline the ethical implications in Milgram’s (1963) research

Answer 27

1. Deception: participants decived about aim of research, nature of activity and who the other participant was
2. risk to participants values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy: prods were used to put pressure on the participant to stay
3. No risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain: stress was evident. 3 participants had a seizure and all participants learnt something negative about themselves and what they were capable of
4. research could damage the repuation of psychology as a whole and limit numbers volunteering for future research.

Question 28

What are the costs of Milgram’s (1963) research to society/economy?

Answer 28

• concluded all humans regardless of culture are capable of acting outside of conscience and obeying an authority figure. This may encourage abdication for any responsibility, e.g. ‘I was told to do it’.
• This is ethically concerning for mny groups of society, e.g. soldiers. It may be this abdication of responsibility that led soldiers during the Iraq war to commit crimes such as torture and murder against detainees.

Question 29

What are the benefits of the research conducted by Milgram (1963) to society/economy?

Answer 29

• Milgram disproved the common belief that the atrocities carried out in WW2 were due to the ‘German Personality’.
• research enhanced understanding of war crimes and possibly reduced potential discrimination
• the knowledge that people are more similar than they are different can also reduce prejudice and discrimination in future generations
• research has helped in understanding the dynamics of war and acts as a warning, to stop similar atrocities occuring in the future.

Question 30

When and why were the BPS Code of ethics established?

Answer 30

• To attempt to maximise the benefits of psychological research and minimise risk to participants and society
• most recent revision by the BPS made in 2018

Question 31

Outine the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct’s 4 principles which must guide research

Answer 31

1. respect for the dignity of all human beings and comunities
2. Competence: a psychologist should not provide proffessional services outside their areas of knowledge, skills training and experience
3. responsibility: research must be for the common good and should not be used to control/discriminate
4. Integrity: research must be well designed and valid

Question 32

Outline the specific ethical guidelines by the BPS

Answer 32

1. valid consent
2. confidentiality
3. risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain
4. deception
5. privacy
6. debriefing (dealing with ethical issues)

Question 33

What is the solution for the ethical issues res

Question 34

Outline Risk management techniques used by psychologists

ethical costs of conducting research

Answer 34

• the development of proffessional guidelines for the conduct of their studies
• In Britain, psychologists are bound by thr guidelines of the British Psychological society (BPS)- the code of ethics and conduct, which identifies 4 core principles, **respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
  **
• BPS also advises on specific situations, giving instructions about what is appropriate e.g. valid consent should be sought from a parent/guardian when working with vulnerable individuals
• proffessional associations in other countries have developed their own codes. The Canadian Psychological Society (CPS) takes a different approach. Instead of just stating ethical principles, the CPS emphasises ethical decision making. A criticism made of ethical guidelines is that they close off discussion and discourage individuals from taking personal responsibility for their behaviour
• the CPS provides hypothetical ethical dilemmas to encourage psychologists to open up the discussion.