C1: Debates

Question 1

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of understanding consciousness?
2. Why is neuroscience not ethical in terms of understanding consciousness?

the ethics of neuroscience- biological debate

Answer 1

1. • doctors can make more knowledgeable decisions on whether to turn off a life support machine for someone who not evidently conscious by seeing if there is stimulation in claustrum (research suggests this brain structure may play key role in consciousness)
     - may be economically beneficial to use claustrum research as healthcare money can be spent on others who will benefit more as still conscious
2. • doctors may use this to empty hospital beds so other people can use them. In wales there is the opt out system where presumed consent given unless person opted out SO if doctor needs a donor they may use this to turn off life support machine.
     - no definitive proof claustrum is evidence of consciousness

Question 2

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of treating criminal behaviour?
2. Why is neuroscience not ethical in terms of treating criminal behaviour?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 2

1. offering drugs to criminals to cure impulsion and aggression may make society safer
   - those with abnormalities in brain areas shown by neuroscience to possibly cause criminality can be carefully observed
   - drug therapies may be developed for criminals due to research showing abnormal brain areas that cause criminality- criminals can reintegrate into society
2. only bio factors considered BUT cultural, socioeconomic factors etc may be involved

Question 3

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of enhancing neurological function?
2. Why is neuroscience NOT ethical in terms of enhancing neurological function?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 3

1. would help enhance individual abilities e.g. with exams- Transactional Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) passes direct electric current across specific regions of brain. Cohen Kadosh et al (2012) found TDCS leads to improved problem solving, mathematical, language, memory and attention capability SO students could use in prep for exams
2. no training for practitioners of TDCS which may lead to long term brain damage on developing brains (some believe TDCS should be banned). Potential to help students but may cost lives due to lack of training. TDCS not available to everyone so may be unfair to offer to some but not all.

Question 4

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of improving marketting techniques?
2. Why is neuroscience NOT ethical in terms of improving marketting techniques?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 4

1. neuromarketing - when being interviewed by market researchers people may not give true opinions due to presence of social desirability bias, which can be avoided by using eye tracking equipment that provides objective of what catches someone’s eye when shopping/watching advertisements- improves sales for company (economic benefits)
2. neuromarketing accesses inner thoughts. Wilson et al (2008) suggest neuromarketing research will allow advertisers to deliver individualised messages so free will manipulated by brand, which many may not want as wish to make own decisions.

Question 5

what are the social and economical implications of neuroscience?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 5

• improving marketting techniques (neuromarketing) can aid economy by increasing sales and profits
• The Nuffield Trust “014) argues since financial crisis 2008, has been increase in amount antidepressants prescribed, which costs economy a lot of money-neuroscientists that help treat/even cure disorders could save economy billions.

Question 6

Why should the Mother be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of Feeding?

Answer 6

• NHS reccommends babies breastfed for at least first 6 months of life as it protects babies from many infections and diseases
• NHS claim breastfeeding can build a strong physical and emotional bond between a mother and her child which is important for emotional development
• This arguement means the mother is needed many times a day to feed the infant, so it is practical and essential for a baby’s survival that the mother is the primary caregiver, as fathers cannot breastfeed.

Question 7

Why should the Mother NOT be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of feeding?

Answer 7

• 1950s behaviourist research promoted view babies are classically conditioned to associate mother with sense of pleasure, food
• BUT studies demonstrate food does not equate to love. Harry Harlow (1959) placed infant monkeys with 2 fake, wire mothers, one with a feeding bottle and other covered in soft cloth. Monkeys spent most time on cloth covered mother especially when scared
• shows food does not create emotional bond, but comfort provided through contact does
• Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) supported finding. Found that primary attachments were not formed with the person who fed or spent more time with the infant. Strongly attached infants had carers who responded quickly and sensitively to their needs and interacted the most with them.

Question 8

Why should the mother be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of Freud’s views on the importance of the mother?

Answer 8

• Freud believed bond between mother and baby very important in oral stage of psychosexual development, where infants depend on mother to satisfy needs of their libido. Overindulgence/frustration leads to emotional problems later in life such as neediness or pessimism
• Freud claimed anxiety caused by infant realising their bodily needs will be unsatisfied if separation occurs.
• Freud claimed relationship between mother and baby acts as a prototype for every relationship the infant will have in life.

Question 9

Why should the Mother NOT be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of Freud’s views on the importance of the mother?

Answer 9

• Freud’s ideas are out of date
• ideas about the mother and father roles may simply reflect norms and values of 20th century society and if writing today, ideas of the father role may be different
• Freud did recognise importance of the role of the father in a boy’s development, as came up with the Oedipus complex in which boys have castration anxiety as they fear their father knows they are jealous of their father for having all of their mother’s attention, so identify with their father to resolve this

Question 10

Why should the mother be the primary care giver of an infant, in terms of deprivation damage?

Answer 10

• Bowlby (1944) demonstrated early and prolonged separation betweena child and mother can have lasting emotional effects, mostly that this is likely to lead to affectionless psychopathy (feel no empathy or responsibility, affection, guilt)
• affectionless psychopaths caused by early and prolonged sepeartion from mother more likely to become a thief and have difficulty forming relationships- maternal deprivation hypothesis
• Bowlby proposed that attachment to one caregiver important for survival
• one special emotional bond called monotropy

Question 11

Why does the mother NOT need to be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of deprivation damage?

Answer 11

• Bowlby developed maternal deprivation hypothesis but did not mean this role was exclusive to mother of child
• arguable that the claim that the relationship between baby and primary caregiver of crucial importance is not true
• Bowlby (1956) conducted research that showed some children show no negative affects from early separation. The children had illnesses and spent years in hospital with little family contact, but most showed few problems later in life.
• Bowlby et al suggest those children who coped better may have been better attached to mothers or mother substitute in the first place so more resilient. BUT study shows this bond attachment does not need to continue and separation can occur.

Question 12

Why should the mother be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of mothers not fathers?

Answer 12

• possible women are best primary caregivers as most men not psychologically equipped to form the same intense emotional relationship due to biological and social factors
• Female hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviour so women more orientated towards emotional relationships than males
• male behaviour may be affected by gender stereotypes such as that it is a female role to be sensitive of the needs of others
• evidence that fathers are less sensitive to infant cues than mothers (e.g. Heermann et al 1994)
• BUT Frodi et al (1978) showed videotapes of infants crying and found no difference in biological responses of men and women

Question 13

Why does the mother NOT need to be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of mothers not fathers?

Answer 13

• evidence that men are quite capable of forming close attachments to their children, such as in the case of single fathers
• outdated view that men are not emotional and this view portrays toxic masculinity of earlier society
• modern day changing stereotypes mean all genders feel more free to take on roles traditionally for other genders
• a woman is not the only parent who becomes hormonally adapted to parenthood
• Gettler et al (2011) suggest a father’s testosterone level drops so he can respond more sensitively to child needs.

Question 14

What are the ethical, social and economical implications of the mother as primary caregiver of an infant?

Answer 14

• both parents are now offered a year of paternity/maternity leave from work following the birth of their child. This change in social policy reflects how parents in UK are moving past traditional gender roles in parenting, that the mother should be the primary caregiver (strength, social)
• economic costs of childcare for society and parents are high, costing on average £14,500 a year (Childrens charity, Coram). (weakness, economical)
• In March 2014, UK government introduced a scheme that allows parents to claim tax relief on childcare costs, encouraging parents to work. This is costly to these schemes BUT may be a greater cost to economy if unable to sustain effective workforce. (strength, social and weakness due to costs to schemes)

Question 15

Conclude the contemporary debate of the mother as primary caregiver of an infant

Answer 15

• view that mother should be primary caregiver is outdated for two reasons
• no conclusive evidence mother has to be primary caregiver
• it mistakenly emphasises children have one primary caregiver and in reality healthy development comes from multiple important relationships
• Bowlby proposed there is one primary attachment figure but also a secondary attachment provides emotional safety when primary caregiver absent.
• Research has shown both mothers and fathers are equally important in development
• arguable that any caregivers have to be primary