C1: Debates

Question 1

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of understanding consciousness?
2. Why is neuroscience not ethical in terms of understanding consciousness?

the ethics of neuroscience- biological debate

Answer 1

1. • doctors can make more knowledgeable decisions on whether to turn off a life support machine for someone who not evidently conscious by seeing if there is stimulation in claustrum (research suggests this brain structure may play key role in consciousness)
     - may be economically beneficial to use claustrum research as healthcare money can be spent on others who will benefit more as still conscious
2. • doctors may use this to empty hospital beds so other people can use them. In wales there is the opt out system where presumed consent given unless person opted out SO if doctor needs a donor they may use this to turn off life support machine.
     - no definitive proof claustrum is evidence of consciousness

Question 2

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of treating criminal behaviour?
2. Why is neuroscience not ethical in terms of treating criminal behaviour?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 2

1. offering drugs to criminals to cure impulsion and aggression may make society safer
   - those with abnormalities in brain areas shown by neuroscience to possibly cause criminality can be carefully observed
   - drug therapies may be developed for criminals due to research showing abnormal brain areas that cause criminality- criminals can reintegrate into society
2. only bio factors considered BUT cultural, socioeconomic factors etc may be involved

Question 3

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of enhancing neurological function?
2. Why is neuroscience NOT ethical in terms of enhancing neurological function?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 3

1. would help enhance individual abilities e.g. with exams- Transactional Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) passes direct electric current across specific regions of brain. Cohen Kadosh et al (2012) found TDCS leads to improved problem solving, mathematical, language, memory and attention capability SO students could use in prep for exams
2. no training for practitioners of TDCS which may lead to long term brain damage on developing brains (some believe TDCS should be banned). Potential to help students but may cost lives due to lack of training. TDCS not available to everyone so may be unfair to offer to some but not all.

Question 4

1. Why is neuroscience ethical in terms of improving marketting techniques?
2. Why is neuroscience NOT ethical in terms of improving marketting techniques?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 4

1. neuromarketing - when being interviewed by market researchers people may not give true opinions due to presence of social desirability bias, which can be avoided by using eye tracking equipment that provides objective of what catches someone’s eye when shopping/watching advertisements- improves sales for company (economic benefits)
2. neuromarketing accesses inner thoughts. Wilson et al (2008) suggest neuromarketing research will allow advertisers to deliver individualised messages so free will manipulated by brand, which many may not want as wish to make own decisions.

Question 5

what are the social and economical implications of neuroscience?

ethics of neuroscience-biological debate

Answer 5

• improving marketting techniques (neuromarketing) can aid economy by increasing sales and profits
• The Nuffield Trust “014) argues since financial crisis 2008, has been increase in amount antidepressants prescribed, which costs economy a lot of money-neuroscientists that help treat/even cure disorders could save economy billions.

Question 6

Why should the Mother be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of Feeding?

Answer 6

• NHS reccommends babies breastfed for at least first 6 months of life as it protects babies from many infections and diseases
• NHS claim breastfeeding can build a strong physical and emotional bond between a mother and her child which is important for emotional development
• This arguement means the mother is needed many times a day to feed the infant, so it is practical and essential for a baby’s survival that the mother is the primary caregiver, as fathers cannot breastfeed.

Question 7

Why should the Mother NOT be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of feeding?

Answer 7

• 1950s behaviourist research promoted view babies are classically conditioned to associate mother with sense of pleasure, food
• BUT studies demonstrate food does not equate to love. Harry Harlow (1959) placed infant monkeys with 2 fake, wire mothers, one with a feeding bottle and other covered in soft cloth. Monkeys spent most time on cloth covered mother especially when scared
• shows food does not create emotional bond, but comfort provided through contact does
• Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) supported finding. Found that primary attachments were not formed with the person who fed or spent more time with the infant. Strongly attached infants had carers who responded quickly and sensitively to their needs and interacted the most with them.

Question 8

Why should the mother be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of Freud’s views on the importance of the mother?

Answer 8

• Freud believed bond between mother and baby very important in oral stage of psychosexual development, where infants depend on mother to satisfy needs of their libido. Overindulgence/frustration leads to emotional problems later in life such as neediness or pessimism
• Freud claimed anxiety caused by infant realising their bodily needs will be unsatisfied if separation occurs.
• Freud claimed relationship between mother and baby acts as a prototype for every relationship the infant will have in life.

Question 9

Why should the Mother NOT be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of Freud’s views on the importance of the mother?

Answer 9

• Freud’s ideas are out of date
• ideas about the mother and father roles may simply reflect norms and values of 20th century society and if writing today, ideas of the father role may be different
• Freud did recognise importance of the role of the father in a boy’s development, as came up with the Oedipus complex in which boys have castration anxiety as they fear their father knows they are jealous of their father for having all of their mother’s attention, so identify with their father to resolve this

Question 10

Why should the mother be the primary care giver of an infant, in terms of deprivation damage?

Answer 10

• Bowlby (1944) demonstrated early and prolonged separation betweena child and mother can have lasting emotional effects, mostly that this is likely to lead to affectionless psychopathy (feel no empathy or responsibility, affection, guilt)
• affectionless psychopaths caused by early and prolonged sepeartion from mother more likely to become a thief and have difficulty forming relationships- maternal deprivation hypothesis
• Bowlby proposed that attachment to one caregiver important for survival
• one special emotional bond called monotropy

Question 11

Why does the mother NOT need to be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of deprivation damage?

Answer 11

• Bowlby developed maternal deprivation hypothesis but did not mean this role was exclusive to mother of child
• arguable that the claim that the relationship between baby and primary caregiver of crucial importance is not true
• Bowlby (1956) conducted research that showed some children show no negative affects from early separation. The children had illnesses and spent years in hospital with little family contact, but most showed few problems later in life.
• Bowlby et al suggest those children who coped better may have been better attached to mothers or mother substitute in the first place so more resilient. BUT study shows this bond attachment does not need to continue and separation can occur.

Question 12

Why should the mother be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of mothers not fathers?

Answer 12

• possible women are best primary caregivers as most men not psychologically equipped to form the same intense emotional relationship due to biological and social factors
• Female hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviour so women more orientated towards emotional relationships than males
• male behaviour may be affected by gender stereotypes such as that it is a female role to be sensitive of the needs of others
• evidence that fathers are less sensitive to infant cues than mothers (e.g. Heermann et al 1994)
• BUT Frodi et al (1978) showed videotapes of infants crying and found no difference in biological responses of men and women

Question 13

Why does the mother NOT need to be the primary caregiver of an infant, in terms of mothers not fathers?

Answer 13

• evidence that men are quite capable of forming close attachments to their children, such as in the case of single fathers
• outdated view that men are not emotional and this view portrays toxic masculinity of earlier society
• modern day changing stereotypes mean all genders feel more free to take on roles traditionally for other genders
• a woman is not the only parent who becomes hormonally adapted to parenthood
• Gettler et al (2011) suggest a father’s testosterone level drops so he can respond more sensitively to child needs.

Question 14

What are the ethical, social and economical implications of the mother as primary caregiver of an infant?

Answer 14

• both parents are now offered a year of paternity/maternity leave from work following the birth of their child. This change in social policy reflects how parents in UK are moving past traditional gender roles in parenting, that the mother should be the primary caregiver (strength, social)
• economic costs of childcare for society and parents are high, costing on average £14,500 a year (Childrens charity, Coram). (weakness, economical)
• In March 2014, UK government introduced a scheme that allows parents to claim tax relief on childcare costs, encouraging parents to work. This is costly to these schemes BUT may be a greater cost to economy if unable to sustain effective workforce. (strength, social and weakness due to costs to schemes)

Question 15

Conclude the contemporary debate of the mother as primary caregiver of an infant

Answer 15

• view that mother should be primary caregiver is outdated for two reasons
• no conclusive evidence mother has to be primary caregiver
• it mistakenly emphasises children have one primary caregiver and in reality healthy development comes from multiple important relationships
• Bowlby proposed there is one primary attachment figure but also a secondary attachment provides emotional safety when primary caregiver absent.
• Research has shown both mothers and fathers are equally important in development
• arguable that any caregivers have to be primary

Question 16

Introduce the Contemporary debate, Using Conditioning Techniques to control the behaviour of Children

Answer 16

Using conditioning techniques is a highly contentious area as it involves manipulating the behaviour of others, not necessarily with their knowledge of it. Advocates believe such techniques offer a host of benefits to children, their parents, teachers and society on the whole. However, detractors believe the techniques are merely a form of coercion and bribery.

Question 17

Why are conditioning techniques appropriate to control the behaviour of children at home

Answer 17

• operant conditioning used in the home by parents every day, as a form of coercion e.g. if a child does not want to put their jacket on, they may be offered a reward for doing so, which is an example of positive reinforcement.
• the same child is being potty trained and may receive a sticker each time they use the potty, getting a treat at the end of the day/week as a form of token economy, which is another example of positive reinforcement
• one might argue positive reinforcement and punishment are commonplace in most households.
• some argue that the use of these techniques on children at home allows children to build new skills that will mean children become useful members of society
• Supernanny Jo Frost used the ‘naughty step’, which involves the child having to sit on, for example, the staircase at home, when they have performed inapproriate behaviour. When a child performs bad behaviour, their parents may shout at them, which is unpleasant attention which is actually an example of positive reinforcement. Frost claims this can be dealt with by resisiting any kind of reinforcement, and that techniques such as the naughty step work best when parents give positive reinforcement when their child does something right, i.e. at the appropriate times.
• Gill (1998) found that paying children to complete household tasks resulted in them performing 20% of all household chores. This use of positive reinforcement can be viewed as the child is learning about the value of money. If they complete tasks they do not really want to do, they will be rewarded financially, much like a job as an adult, that they would be paid to do. The child is also learning skills that will be important for their own independence e.g. how to do laundry.

Question 18

Why are conditioning techniques Not Appropriate to control the behaviour of children at home

Answer 18

• some may argue that using conditioning techniques on children is not allowing them to build new skills to become useful members of society BUT is merely being used to make the life of parents more manageable
• More parents are becoming ‘off grid’ meaning they do not parent their children in traditional ways and do not use any reinforcement to control the behaviour of their children. For example, they may let their child go to bed when they feel tired, rather than controlling when they go to bed with a strict bedtime. Some parents that do this argue this allows the child to make their own choices and listen to their own body, and may avoid them developing insomnia and other problems later in life.
• Techniques such as the naughty step criticised by childcare experts. Morris (2014) claims the naughty step can have long term emotional effects as children don’t have the same ability as adults to reflect on their behaviour and verbalise the feelings they experience whilst on the naughty step, so without empathy and help with their feelings, the naughty step may negatively impact development.
• Gill (1998) found that paying children to complete household tasks resulted in them performing 20% of all household chores. This use of posotie reinforcement can be viewed as giving children false belief that all mundane tasks will be rewarded which is not the case in real life in adulthood. They are chores, which means in adulthood, they will not be rewarded, they are simply tasks that have to be done.

Question 19

Why are conditioning techniques Appropriate to use on children at school

Answer 19

• operant conditioning, through positive reinforcement, such as gold stars and meerit points to control children’s behaviour has been found to be effective. McAllister et al (1969) found that increased ‘teacher praise’ led to a decrease in ‘innapropriate talking’ in secondary school
• LeFrancois (2000) suggests classical conditioning can be used to improve student performance. Teachers should maximise pleasant stimuli (displays, nice smells etc) and minimise unpleasant stimuli (shouting, negative comments) to condition students to associate the classroom environment with positive feelings

Question 20

Why are conditioning techniques Not Appropriate to control the behaviout of children in school?

Answer 20

• Montessori education would reject the use of conditioning techniques, believing they are harmful to a child’s development and that they interfere with a child’s internal drives to learn
• Lepper et al (1973) conducted research that supports this, into the behaviour of nursery children. They found that when promised a reward, children spent less time on a task, suggesting theu were motivated by the reward rather than the intrinsic motivation to succeed.
• Reward systems are not evident in schools from different cultures. Lewis (1995) conducted observations of Japanese elementary schools and found the use of reward systems or praise was rarelt used, but also that children seemed to be internally motivated.
• some children may feel that not only positive stimuli within the classroom, enables them to associate the classroom environment with positive feelings, but also that the peers within the class will affect this. Thus, those that are bullied may not associate the classroom environment with positive feelings.

Question 21

Why are conditioning techniques appropriate to control the behaviour of vulnerable groups of children

Answer 21

• conditioning techniques can be used to help children with psychological and medical conditions such as autism and ADHD
• Robinson et al (1981) found that token economy can be used to improve the literay skills of children with hyperactivity issues. Using this technique to reinforce desirable behaviours is effective as children learn that they need to build up tokens to receive the reward
• Lovass (1987) developed Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) to increase social interactions for children with autism. Target behaviours may include problems with self care etc. Initially, during one on one therapy, the child is rewarded regularly for appropriate social behaviours, but over time the rewards are reduced and only issues if the behaviour displayed is close to the ideal target behaviour.

Question 22

Why are conditioning techniques Not appropriate to control the behaviour of vulnerable groups of children

Answer 22

• The Lovaas method has been criticised by critics who believe the technique has many problems. It has been criticised as being inappropriate because ABA, as indicated by Lovaas, is intensive and requires around 40 hours of therapy per week. This can be costly and arguably unnecessary, as other researchers such as Anderson et al (1987) have found that an average of 20 hours per weel was enough to see a significant improvement in the social behaviour of autistic children
• May also be seen as inappropriate to use conditioning techniques on children with psychological and medical conditions because conditioning only treats the symptoms and is likely that undesirable behaviours would re-emerge once therapy has finished and the reinforcement removed.

Question 23

Why are conditioning techniques used by peers appropriate to control the behaviour of children?

Answer 23

• Peers of child are children of similar age and development
• Children may begin being influenced by parents, but when they go to nursery and later to school, the influence of peer groups begins to grow and strengthen
• To reduce negative sanctions of a peer group such as exclusion and criticism, and increase positive sanctions, such as praise and acceptance, children will imitate the behaviours and actions of their peers
• children are conditioned by their peers
• the behaviours and actions of peers that children will imitate may be desirable behaviours, such as sharing toys or washing hands before meals. Many would argue that these behaviours that children are conditioned to do by their peers allow the children to develop skills they can use to become functioning members of society

Question 24

Why are conditioning techniques used by peers Not appropriate to control the behaviour of children?

Answer 24

• peer group influences may not be desirable ones. Bricker et al (2006) found that children as young as 10 years old were more likely to try smoking if members of their peer group smoked.
• This demonstrates that a child’s need for positive reinforcement from their peer group is not always a healthy option.

Question 25

What are the ethical concerns that arise from the debate of using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children?

Answer 25

• Valid consent: children are being conditioned by adults, without their knowledge and consent. Children are unable to remove themselves from situations that may cause them psychological distress. Their free will to behave in any way they want is removed by systems of socialisation (family and education)
• protection from harm: conditioning techniques such as the ‘naughty step’ may cause psychological harm as suggested by Morris (2014). Corporal punishment will cause physical harm. Corporal punishment is currently still legal in England and Northern Ireland, under the defence of ‘reasonable punishment’, but this causes physical harm and may also harm child emotionally.

Question 26

What are the economic implications of the debate, using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children?

Answer 26

• Levitt et al (2010) sugessted if financial rewards (positive reinforcement) in schools increase grades, this could benefit society and the economy in the long term. If children leave school with better grades, they may gte better jobs with higher salaries and make more baluable contributions to society
• But some may argue that rewarding children financially may create a generation that is only motivated by money, and not internalised motivation, which may not be healthy
• There is research into Gen Z (those born after 1996 to start of 2016) in terms of their expectations and motivators in the world of work. These people have been conditioned in home and school and so expect higher financial incentives than they will actually achieve in their early career.
• Forbes (2019) states that an average student who graduates with a degree will earn around 23% less than they expect to when they first leave university. It is yet to be seen whether the long term expectations of children received through conditioning techniques are beneficial or not in the long term.

Question 27

What are the social implications associated with the debate, using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children

Answer 27

• conditioning vulnerable children allows them to behave in a more socially acceptable manner, increasng the likelihood of them being accepted in society, such as employment etc.
• Many argue vulnerable children should not be manipulated in this way, as they should be accepted into society for who they are, not shaped into a completely different person, in order for society to treat them the same as a typical individual.
• conditioning techniques can have political implications e.g. corporal punishment is currently legal in England and Northern Ireland, but the UN are recommending this becomes illegal.

Question 28

Conclude the debate, Using conditioning techniques to control the behaviour of children

Answer 28

• parents, schools, peers and other agencies all have the obligation to ensure children grow up able to function within society. This process of socialisation inevitably involves conditioning as this is a basic route to learning and teaching
• However, the issue is whether such techniques are the most effective ways to manage behaviour, for example reward systems may be ineffective. Secondly, there are important ethical considerations related to the manipulation of behaviour e.g. in vulnerable groups of children.
• who decides what an ‘ideal society’ is, in which to condition behaviour to fit in with that society. By doing this, much of a child’s free will is taken away so they cannot choose to behave themselves. Many may argue this removes individuality.

Question 29

Introduce the debate, The reliability of Eyewitness testimony

Answer 29

• the issue at the heart of this debate is whether evidence from psychological research can suppot the reliance of the criminal justice system on the testimony of eyewitnesses
• if research suggests eyewitness accounts are a reliable form of evidence, they could be invaluable in bringing criminals to justice
• However, the implication of innaccurate/unreliable testimony is eyewitness misidentification, which results in the wrongful conviction of innocent people

Question 30

Why are eyewitnesses Not reliable, due to crimes being emotive experiences?

Answer 30

• eyewitnesses may not be reliable because the crimes they witness are unexpected and emotionally traumatising
• Freud argued that extremely painful or threatening memories are forced into the unconscious mind, which is the process of repression, which is an ego defence mechanism. Modernly this may be refered to as ‘motivated forgetting’
• Thus, perhaps eyewitnesses are not reliable because the memory of the crime is too traumatising

Question 31

Why are eyewitnesses reliable, due to crimes being emotive experiences?

Answer 31

• some psychologists believe when people experience events which are emptionally shocking and/or hold personal significance, they create a particularly accurate and long lasting memory (flashbulb memory)
• there is evidence that the hormones associated with emotion, such as adrenaline may enhance storage of memories (Cahil and McGaugh, 1995).
• This suggests the emotion surrounding a crime may actually lead to more, rather than less, reliable memories.

Question 32

Why are eyewitnesses Not reliable, due to the impact of age and personality on eyewitness accounts?

Answer 32

• generally accepted that the memories of both children and the elderly are less reliable than those of adults.
• This is because children lack the vocabulary and schemas to understand what they have witnesses and thus are unable to articulate it to the police
• the elderly may be more likely to be misled (Cohen and Faulkner, 1989) or use schematic stereotypes to fill the gaps in their memory of events
• Roebers and Scheidner (2010) found that higher intelligence in children lead to more reliable recall in EWT, where as shy children gave less accurate EWTs than those who were not shy
• Coxon and Valentine (1997) found that 8 year olds were affected by questions containing misleading info, but 70 year olds and 17 year olds were not

Question 33

Why are eyewitnesses reliable, due to the impact of age and personality on eyewitness accounts?

Answer 33

• Davies et al (1989) reviewed the literature discussing children used as witnesses.
• Children between the ages of 6 and 7 and 10 and 11 are fairly accurate in their memories of an event, they do not usually ‘make things up’ and they do not deliberately lie when giving testimony. Their memory for important details is not significantly altered by adault suggestion after an event.

Question 34

Why are eyewitnesses not reliable, due to reconstructive memory and post event information?

Answer 34

• Bartlett (1932) suggested that, although people think they remeber accurately, they are continually trying to make sense of their surroundings and memories tend to be assimilated into existing schemas. This is known as ‘effort after meaning’
• Loftus and Zanni (1975) demonstrated the effects of post event information. Found that 7% of those asked ‘did you see a broken headlight?’ reported seeing a headlight, where as 17% of those asked ‘did you see the broken headlight?’ reported seeing one. (the post event info was the word ‘a’ or ‘the’
• demonstrates that even subtle changes in the wording used in questions can influence the recollection of participants
• this suggests that whenever a witness is questioned, their EWT may not be accurate because their recollection of the actual event may be distorted.
• Wells (1993) showed how a witness assumes the suspect is present in an identity parade, even if they are not, which may lead to false recognition.
• preexisitng schemas hold expectations of different people, topics, objects, places etc, which may be derived from news reports, movies etc. When we later have to recall the information, these expectations may be incorporated into our memory, leading to innaccurate recall.
• Yarmey (1993) asked 240 students to look at 30 videos of unknown males and classify them as ‘good/bad guys’. there was high agreement among participants suggesting there is similarity in the information stored in the ‘good guy’ and ‘bad guy schemas’.

Question 35

Why are eyewitnesses reliable, due to the fact that reconstructive memory does not mean memory is unreliable?

Answer 35

in many crimes, eyewitnesses know the offender and so do not need to use their schemas. RapeCrisis reports 90% of rapists are known to their victims. This means the ability of the eyewitness to identify the offender is likely to be very reliable, even when the crimes themselves are very traumatic

Question 36

Why are eyewitnesses reliable, due to traits of the witness and face recognition?

Answer 36

• people are less reliable when describing witnesses of another race/age etc.
• Cohen (1966) showed that faces are not seen in isolation, but they are influenced both by the event itself and by people’s schema, social norms and values. (Cross-Race Identification Bias)
• cross race identification bias is the tendency for eyewitnesses to be better at identifying people from their own race than people of other races
• some studies have shown that witnesses who are a different race to a perpetrator are up to 56% more likely to wrongfully identify a suspect. This can lead to wronfgul convictions.

Question 37

What are the Ethical implications of the contemporary debate, ‘The reliability of eyewitness testimony’?

Answer 37

• unreliable EWT may cause miscarriages of justice, which may cause long lasting psychological harm
• Distressing stories, such as the wrongful conviction of Ronald Cotton due to unreliable EWT, led to increasing controversy about the death penalty in the USA. A Columbia University report found that 68% od death sentences imposed between 1973 and 1995 were overturned
• Due to unreliable EWT, there are safeguards in place to ‘protect’ child witmesses and offenders from potential harm from the community
• Jennifer Thompson was provided with post event information about her rapist, which meant Ronald Cotton was incorrectly identified as the offender and sentenced to life in prison. Jennifer was certain she had correctly identified her rapist but in 1995 (11 years after conviction), DNA evidence meant Bobby Poole was identified as the rapist and Cotton was freed. Since then, Jennifer has set up the Healing Justice Foundation to help other victims of miscarriages of justice.

Question 38

What are the Economic and Social Implications of the debate, The reliability of eyewitness testimony?

Answer 38

• the cost of retrials and compensation for those wrongfully imprisoned creates economic implications for unreliable EWT
• Berkeley Law, at California University estimate that just 607 wrongful convictions between 1989 and 2012 cost taxpayers $221 million via prosecution, incarceration and later settlement
• these moentry costs are very high, but arguably, the 2186 years served in custodial sentences by those wrongfully convicted is a higher cost, due to the psychological and emotional impacts
• many people argue CCTV use should be increased to replace use of unrelaible EWT, to serve justice to victims of crime. CCTV records what happens, so this could be used as more reliable evidence. BUT some people beleive this may infringe on society’s freedom and many may feel as though their privacy has been invaded if they are being recorded everywhere they go and may not make people feel any safer.

Question 39

Conclude the contemporary debate,‘The reliability of eyewitness testimony’

Answer 39

• it is diffcult for psychologists to definitively prove that eyewitnesses are reliable or not.
• this area of research has been helpful in that it has led us to be more critical of the recollection of eyewitnesses.
• as a result, cognitive interviews and other methods that mean eyewitness recollection is less susceptible to distortion, have been developed
• The increasing use of CCTv systems in the UK means the unreliability of eyewitnesses is likely to become less of a problem in future.

Question 40

Introduce the contemporary debate, ‘Relevance of positive psychology in today’s society’

Answer 40

• The goal of positive psychology is to create a field focussed on human well-being and the strengths ad virtues that allow people to thrive. Psychology was disproportionately focussed on treating mental illness rather than promoting mental health
• positive psychology has shifted some focus onto mental health, with many articles on topics such as happiness and mindfulness and how they relate to mental and physical health
• positive psychology is increasingly being used in schools, therapy, businesses and even within the armed forces. These practical applications of positive psychology highlight its relvance in today’s society
• those in favour of positive psychology argue it can act as a buffer against distress and support mental health to help the general public cope in times of crises
• critics of positive psychology are not convinced research findings are strong enough to apply it in a practical way, arguing it is not yet relevant in today’s society. Some argue the conclusions of the power of the positive are exxagertaed, including the perception that people can reduce illness with more optimism

Question 41

Why is positive psychology Relevant in today’s society, due to the use in education

Answer 41

• Seligman proposes that a positive psychology curriculum (PCC) is relevant in today’s society as it can promote skills and strengths valued by most, improve student well being and behaviour, and help students engage in learning and achievement.
• Seligman (2009) randomly assigned 347 14 and 15 year olds to a PPC class or a non PCC class. The study found the PCC students were more cooperative and had better social skills compared to the non PCC class.
• The** Penn Resiliency Program (PRP)** aims to increase student ability to handle common daily issues in adolenscence. It promotes optimism by teaching students to think more realistically about problems, it teaches assertiveness, decision making, relaxation and other coping skills
• it can be argued that embedding positive psychology principles into education through programmes such as PRP is relevant in today’s society, as depression is around 10 times more common now than 50 years ago among young people
• Gillham et al (1995) found that for those in the PRP group, symptoms of depression were present in 22% of sample, compared to 44% of those in a control group

Question 42

Why is Positive psychology Not relevant in today’s society, due to issues with its use in education?

Answer 42

• lack of empirical evidence to support success of positive psychology curricula. Spence and Shortt (2007) suggest where research does exists, it is based on small scale, short term interventions
• Seligman admits further research needs to be done to ensure positive education programmes are also effective with students from a variety of socio-economic and cultural backgrounds
• adding psychology to the curriculum likely means another subject will have to be removed. Limited budgets mean schools would be unable to teach both
• The Financial Times (2007) suggested students may end of up leaving school with fewer academic achievements as a cost of introducing positive psychology to the curriculum. This means they may not get as good a job and may contribute less to society, which is not beneficial to the economy. They may earn less and so poverty rates may increase.

Question 43

Why is positive psychology relevant in today’s society due to the use of it in the military

Answer 43

• Comprehensive Soldier and Family Fitness (CSF2) program was established in 2008 aiming to adress the challenges faced by soldiers who were deployed due to war conflict.
• Instead of focussing only on treatment after the issues arise, CSF2 aims to provide preventative measures to the soldiers and their families to make them more resilient to cope with demands of deployment
• using positive psychology in military is relevant in today’s society to improve the quality of life for soldiers and families
• consists of components including a global assessment tool (a survey that provides an overall resilience and psychological health score based on emotional, family, social and spiritual fitness) and Master Resilience Training (soldiers take part in a course where they are trained to become more resilient and qualify as Master Resilience trainers (MRTs) to train other soldiers.
• Lester et al (2013) looked at whether soldiers in units with MRTs experienced more increased resilience and psychological health than a control group, as they were interested in whether increase of these things associaited with a reduction in likelihood of being diagnosed with a mental health or substance abuse problem.
• found that the CSF2 programs reduced the likelihood of receiving a diagnosis for a mental health and substance abuse problems

Question 44

Why is positive psychology Not relevant in today’s society, due to its use in the military

Answer 44

• The CSF2 program criticised due to lack of scientific evidence to support its effectiveness
• Lester et al research suggests that effectiveness, resilience and psychological health are measured through self report methods. These are flawed, due to social desirability bias. In the military, which values ‘toughness’, its likely there will be an under reporting of mental health problms due to this bias.
• development of the program cristicised because the Penn Resiliency Program (PRP) it is based upon was originally designed for adolescents and little has been done to adapt the program to meet the needs of a military population.
• this leads critics to argue that the CSF2 program may not be relevant in the military system today and is a waste of time and money

Question 45

Why is positive psychology relevant in today’s society, due to its use in leisure and lifestyle advice?

Answer 45

• Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre (1989) encourage people to increase their happiness levels by being more active in their use of leisure time.
• In a survey of around 1000 school principles during the early COVID-19 lockdown, Burke and Arslan (2020) found that many principals reported they began new hobbies, created healthier personal routines and started to exercise more regularly
• parents reported similar experiences with many finding that caring for their children resulted in increased exercise
• thsi study supports the idea of the relevance of positive psychology, as it has been used to improve the quality of people’s lives, despite difficult global circumstances during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Action for Happiness claims they are a movement for positive social change to create a happier society. It includes support for those suffering with mental health problems but also advice for people without mental health disorders, to be happier, such as ‘10 keys to happier living’

Question 46

Why is poitive psychology not relevant, due to its applications in leisure and lifestyle?

Answer 46

• Leisure activities that are likely improve mental health may be prohibited to many due to lack of educated leisure time or due to the financial costs the require. This means that those with less disposable income and time, due to longer working hours and lower pay, may not be able to access the benefits that positive psychology prescribes
• little scientific evidence to support the effectiveness of movements such as Action for Happiness in making a significant positive difference to lives in the UK, making this application of positive psychology irrelevant in today’s society.

Question 47

Why is positive psychology relevant in today’s society, due to its applications in health?

Answer 47

• Kubzansky and Thurston (2007) followed over 6000 people aged 25-74 for 20 years.
• They found those participants with high levels of ‘emotional vitality’ (sense of enthusiasm, hopefulness, engagement in life and ability to face life stressors with emotional balance) had a reduced risk of coronary heart disease.
• medical proffessionals may treat patients with advice about how to increase their happiness, along with other lifestyle advice

Question 48

Why is positive psychology Not relevant in today’s society, due to its application in health?

Answer 48

• its hard to prove a cause and effect relationship between happiness and health
• people may be healthy because they are health, or they may be happy because they are healthy
• positive psychology could be a significant influence in the health sector, but it perhaps is not taken as seriously because it has difficulty conducting research that draw clear cause and effect conclusions

Question 49

What are the social implications of the use of positive psychology in today’s society?

Answer 49

• According to the Office for National Statistics (ONS), (2020), almost 1 in 5 adults were likely to be experiencing some form of depression during the COVID-19 pandemic in June 2020.
• This had almost doubled from around 1 in 10 before the pandemic
• applying principles of positive psychology to improve mental health makes the discipline extremely relevant in today’s society.
• the use of positive psychology would have positive social implications, if it could be used to improve the mental health of inidividuals and reduce the likelihood of people experiencing depression. This would improve the mental health and quality of life of people.

Question 50

What are the ethical implications of the use of positive psychology in today’s society?

Answer 50

• projects that have embedded positive psychology into their principles, e.g. Action For Happiness, tend to target welathier people, as some actions require money/resources.
• This raises ethical issues as it implies that achieving happiness may not be accessible to everyone.
• this is especially problematic, as people aged 16-39, female, unable to afford an unexpected expense, or disabled were most likely to experience some form of depression in the COVIS-19 pandemic (Office for National Statistics, 2020)
• these people would most likely benefit from such initiatives but cannot afford to. This is ethically challenging and shows wider social issues that need to be overcome before positive psychology can become entirely relevant to today’s society

Question 51

What are the economical implications to the use of positive psychology in today’s society?

Answer 51

• improving happiness and wellbeing can save society money
• businesses are estimated to lose £26 billion per year in sick pay and high staff turnover because of workplace stress
• Oswald et al (2009) found that happy workers were 12% more productive, which has a positive effect on the economy
• positive psychology principles of promoting happiness can save the NHS money as physical health can be improved with a positive outlook on life (suggested by Kubzansky and Thurston)
• even if positive psychology initiatives reduce depression and anxiety by just 1%, this could have huge positive financial implications for nations and their governments
• the economic strain of COVID-19 responses means that productivity and flow in the workplace have become even more relevant in today’s society, where the UK government will need to use all means available to them to overcome the financial burdens the pandemic created.

Question 52

Conclude the contemporary debate, the relevance of positive psychology in today’s society

Answer 52

• positive psychologyhas refocussed psychology on research and advice that will help people improve their lives and the society in which they live, rather than being concerned with the negatives, such as aggressive behaviour or addiction. Such a focus has led to interesting research and new programmes in schools, work and leisure
• However, such programmes may only be a small part of a person’s life or only available to a small number of people, and so have little impact. The positive approach may only be relevant to the Western, developed world
• the approach is relatively new and it may take time before its impact is felt.